2. Section 1: Thinking and Problem Solving Section 2: Language
Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Thinking and Problem Solving
Section 2: Language
Chapter Menu

3. Chapter Objectives · Section 1
Thinking and Problem Solving
Understand that thinking involves changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new or transformed information.
Chapter Preview 1

4. Chapter Objectives · Section 2
Language
Explain how language and thought are closely related.
Chapter Preview 2

5. Chapter Preview-End

6. Main Idea
Thinking involves changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new or transformed information, such as creative problem-solving strategies.
Section 1-Main Idea

7. Vocabulary thinking image symbol concept prototype rule metacognition
algorithm
heuristic
mental set
functional fixedness
creativity
flexibility
recombination
insight
Section 1-Key Terms

8. Objectives Identify the units of thought and the kinds of thinking.
Explain strategies for and obstacles to problem solving.
Section 1-Objectives

9. Section 1-Polling Question
Would you consider yourself to be a good writer?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much so
D. Not at all A B C D
Section 1-Polling Question

10. Thinking Thinking Units of thought: Image Symbol Concept Prototype
Rule
Using Imagery
Section 1

11. Thinking (cont.)
Units of thought provide an efficient way for people to:
represent reality.
manipulate and reorganize it.
devise new ways of acting.
Section 1

12. Thinking (cont.) Three kinds of thinking: Directed/Convergent
Nondirected
Metacognition
Directed vs. Nondirected Thinking
Section 1

13. Realizing that a human belongs to a group of organisms different from fungi demonstrates which unit of thought?
A. Symbol
B. Rule
C. Prototype
D. Concept A B C D
Section 1

14. Problem Solving
One of the main functions of directed thinking is to solve problems.
Problem solving depends on the use of strategies.
We tend to use strategies we have used in the past.
Section 1

15. Problem Solving (cont.)
Examples of strategies:
Break down complex problems into smaller ones, or subgoals—intermediate steps toward a solution.
Work backward from the goal you have set.
Examine various ways of reaching a desired goal.
Section 1

16. Problem Solving (cont.)
Algorithm
Mathematical and scientific formulas are algorithms.
Heuristics
These are experimental strategies that allow a person to solve a problem quickly and easily (and sometimes unwisely).
Types of Heuristics
Section 1

17. Problem Solving (cont.)
Obstacles to problem solving, or types of rigidity:
Becoming stuck in a mental set.
Functional fixedness
Making a wrong assumption about a problem.
Overcoming Wrong Assumptions
Connecting the Dots
Section 1

18. How would you most likely solve a mathematical problem?
A. Using heuristics
B. Using subgoals
C. Using algorithms
D. All of the above A B C D
Section 1

19. Creativity All problem solving requires some creativity.
Creativity often requires flexibility and recombination of elements to achieve insight.
Section 1

20. Which do you feel is the most important characteristic of creative thinking?
A. flexibility
B. recombination
C. insight A B C
Section 1

21. Section 1-End

22. Main Idea
Language and thought are closely related. Language requires the learning of a set of complex rules and symbols, yet most people have little difficulty learning their native language.
Section 2-Main Idea

23. Vocabulary language phoneme morpheme syntax semantics
Section 2-Key Terms

24. Objectives Explain the structure of language.
Describe how children develop language.
Section 2-Objectives

25. Section 2-Polling Question
Which language do you think is spoken by the most people?
A. English
B. Spanish
C. French
D. Chinese A B C D
Section 2-Polling Question

26. The Structure of Language
Language consists of three elements:
Phonemes
Morphemes
Syntax
Phonemes and Morphemes
Section 2

27. The Structure of Language (cont.)
Semantics places words in a context that make sense.
Section 2

28. How many morphemes are there in the word unbreakable? A. 3 B. 7 C. 8
Section 2

29. Language Development Theories on language development:
B.F. Skinner believed that children learn language as a result of operant conditioning.
Some critics state that children understand language before they speak—and before they receive any reinforcement.
Section 2

30. Language Development (cont.)
Children learn the rules of language before they receive any feedback for speaking correctly.
Some psychologists believe that children learn language through observation, exploration, and imitation.
Section 2

31. Language Development (cont.)
Innate and environmental factors play a part in how a child learns language.
Noam Chomsky theorized that infants possess an innate capacity for language.
Noam Chomsky
Section 2

32. How do you think we learn a language as a young child?
A. Operant conditioning
B. Observation
C. Imitation
D. Exploring A B C D
Section 2

33. How Language Develops Four stages of language development: Babble
Single words
Two words together
Sentences of several words
Section 2

34. By age two, how many words are in a child’s vocabulary? A. 0–25
D. more than 100 A B C D
Section 2

35. Do Animals Learn Language?
Animals can communicate with each other and some can communicate with humans; however, they do not technically learn language.
Section 2

36. Do you believe that a gorilla that can “ask” for things with human sign language understands language?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Maybe A B C
Section 2

37. Gender and Cultural Differences
Benjamin Whorf argued that language affects our basic perceptions of the physical world.
Linguistic relativity—language influences thoughts.
It is difficult to separate culture from language when studying the use of language and the perceptions it influences.
Section 2

38. Do you think the word pink is a feminine or masculine word?
B. Masculine
C. Neither A B C
Section 2

39. Section 2-End

40. Using Imagery
Rotate pairs of images of the patterns below in your mind to make them match. Do the drawings in each pair represent the same object, or are they different objects?
Figure 1

41. Directed vs. Nondirected Thinking
This problem was devised by psychologist Edward De Bono, who believes that conventional directed thinking is insufficient for solving new and unusual problems. His approach to problem solving requires use of nondirected thinking to generate new ways of looking at the problem situation.
Figure 2-1

42. Directed vs. Nondirected Thinking
This problem was devised by psychologist Edward De Bono, who believes that conventional directed thinking is insufficient for solving new and unusual problems. His approach to problem solving requires use of nondirected thinking to generate new ways of looking at the problem situation.
Answer:
Figure 2-2

43. Types of Heuristics
Heuristics are mental shortcuts. Although they are not rules that always provide the correct answers, they are strategies that experience has taught us to apply.
Figure 3

44. Connecting the Dots
Connect all nine dots shown by drawing four straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper or retracing any lines.
Click the mouse button to display the answer.
Figure 4

45. Overcoming Wrong Assumptions
Arrange these six matches so that they form four equilateral triangles.
Click the mouse button to display the answer.
Figure 5

46. Phonemes and Morphemes
The word fearlessness has nine phonemes and three morphemes.
Figure 6

47. Noam Chomsky 1928–
“[A] human being is a biological organism like any other. It’s a biological organism with a very unique intellectual capacity that we are only barely beginning to understand. I think our intellectual capacities are very highly structured.”
Profile 1

48. Select a transparency to view.
Chapter Concepts Transparencies
Algorithms and Heuristics
Flexible Thinking
Select a transparency to view.
Concept Trans Menu

49. Concept Trans 1

50. Concept Trans 2

51. DFS Trans 1

52. DFS Trans 2

53. thinking: changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new information
Vocab1

54. image: a visual, mental representation of an event or object
Vocab2

55. symbol: an abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality; anything that stands for or represents something else
Vocab3

56. concept: a label for a class of objects or events that have a least one attribute in common
Vocab4

57. prototype: a representative example of a concept
Vocab5

58. rule: a statement of relation between concepts
Vocab6

59. metacognition: the awareness of or thinking about one’s own cognitive processes
Vocab7

60. algorithm: a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
Vocab8

61. heuristic: a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy
Vocab9

62. mental set: a habitual strategy or pattern of problem solving
Vocab10

63. functional fixedness: the inability to imagine new uses for familiar objects
Vocab11

64. creativity: the capacity to use information and/or abilities in new and original ways
Vocab12

65. flexibility: the ability to overcome rigidity, to remain open to alternate strategies
Vocab13

66. recombination: rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution
Vocab14

67. insight: the apparent sudden realization of the solution to a problem
Vocab15

68. language: the expression of ideas through symbols and sounds that are arranged according to rules
Vocab16

69. phoneme: an individual sound that is a basic structural element of language
Vocab17

70. morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning in a given language
Vocab18

71. syntax: language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences
Vocab19

72. semantics: the study of meaning of language
Vocab20

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