1. MARRIAGE, WORK, AND ECONOMICS
Chapter 11

2. Work and Family
The majority (88%) of married fathers and almost half (43%) of married mothers worked full time (at least 35 hrs) from
Most of these men and women were also parents.
However, men and women in the workforce are affected differently by the presence and number of children.
Women tend to decrease workforce participation with each additional child. Men's’ participation is only slightly affected.

3. Time as a Limited Resource
The United States has the longest workweek and the highest percentage of men and women who work over 50 hours per week.
This directly affects the amount of time one has to spend with his/her family.

4. Time Strains
Workers are reported to feel time strains wherein they do not feel that they have or spend enough time in certain roles or relationships.
These time strains tend to be experienced differently by men and women.

5. Work and Family Spillover
Work Spillover
Work has an affect on families. It absorbs time and energy and impacts psychological states.
This negative spillover is more often reported by employed parents and women in particular.
Family Spillover
The emotional climate of our homes can affect morale and performance in the workplace (both positively and negatively).

6. Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Role Overload
Occurs when the statuses and positions we occupy contain competing, contradictory, or simultaneous role expectations.
Role Strain
Occurs when the demands attached to a particular status are contradictory or incompatible.
Role Overload
Occurs when the all of the roles we occupy require more than we can give and we are drowning in what is expected of us.

7. Division of Labor in the Family
All families, regardless of form, require dividing the family’s labor among the members.
Labor is divided in consideration of age and gender and can greatly affect family functioning.

8. The Traditional Model Spouses perform complimentary roles:
Man as the breadwinner
Woman as the caregiver in the home
As of 2008, 19.5% of all married-couple families were traditional families.
The presence of this family form may not be a direct reflection of their gender ideologies – beliefs about what men and women ought to do – it may simply be the form that works for that family.

9. The Traditional Model Men’s Traditional Work
Good provider equated to a good husband
Main source of identity
Perform household maintenance (repairs, mowing the lawn, etc.)
Any other household labor is considered ‘helping’ their partner
If both spouses hold the traditional gender ideology (traditional beliefs about what men and women should do), then this division of work is non-problematic and functional.

10. The Traditional Model Women’s Traditional Work
Expected to perform all household tasks and childcare, even if she is employed outside of the home
Oakley’s primary aspects of the homemaker role:
Delegated exclusively to women
Economically dependent
Distinct from “real” (paid) work
Most important female role

11. Women in the Labor Force
Women have always worked outside the home
Early American families were coprovider families – economic partnerships dependent on both the husband and the wife.
Women may have not had equal economic rights, but they were equally valued as productive family members.
As work moved to the factory, men took up paid labor and women stayed in the home to care for children and maintain family life.

12. Women in the Labor Force
Single women and mothers in low- and working-class families have always been employed.
In July of 2009, 61% of American women were employed compared to 72% if men.
The major shift in women’s employment came after 1960 resulting in a family model where both men and women are working full-time.

13. Reasons for Women’s Increased Employment
More single mothers resulting from increased divorces and births to unmarried women
Increases in women’s educational attainment
Equal opportunity emphasis on women’s employment
Better job opportunities for women
Decline in men’s wages and the ability to provide with one income

14. Individual Motivations
Economic Need
Single mothers must provide for their families.
Two incomes are required to maintain a desirable standard of living.
Increased self-esteem and self-control
Women may find social support, recognition, and appreciation at work that they do not find at home.
When asked, more women would prefer to work outside the home than within it but not by much (50% v. 45%).

15. Dual-Earner and Dual-Career Families
Dual-earner families are a result of changes in the economy which requires two incomes in order to maintain a decent standard of living.
Dual-career families are distinguished by both partners desiring high-achievement, gender equality, and performing up to their abilities, rather then just providing two incomes.
It is often difficult for both partners to achieve their goals and one usually has to be sacrificed for the other.

16. Dual-Career Families Housework
Women tend to do more housework than men (2.5 hrs for married women vs. 1.5 hrs for married men) regardless if they are employed in the labor force.
Cohabiting couples tend to have a more equal division of labor than married couples.
It appears that marriage, rather than living with a man, turns a woman into a homemaker.

17. Dual-Career Families Men and Housework
Men do more housework and childcare than in the past, but their rates are still lower than that of women.
They tend to do more work if their wives earn more money and have a higher education.

18. Emotion Work in Families
Emotion work includes tasks that generate and maintain successful relationships and families.
These include:
Discussing intimate feelings
Bringing partner our of bad mood
Praising partner
Suggesting solutions to relationship problems
Discussing relationship problems
Initiate ‘talking things over’
Monitor partner to address disturbances

19. Child Care Women are responsible for the majority of childcare.
Engagement
Time spent in direct interaction with children
Accessibility
Parent is available (same location) to the child but not in direct interaction
Father’s engagement and accessibility has increased but is still less that that of mother’s.

20. Child Care Active Child Care
Mothers tend to be more active parents than fathers.
Fathers tend to be more involved with sons rather than daughters, younger rather than older children, and first-borns rather than later-borns.
Mental Child Care
Mental labor – the process of worrying, seeking and processing information, and managing the division of care in the household.

21. How Division of Labor Affects Adults
Marital Power (decision-making power)
Employed wives exert more power than non-employed wives.
Satisfaction, Sex, and Stability
Women tend to be more satisfied with their marriages and desire sex more often if their husbands do more household labor.
The risk of divorce is also lower for these couples.

22. Atypical Dual-Earner Families: Shift Couples
In 2004, 18% of all workers worked a shift other than the normal 8-hour day shift.
3 Macro-level Changes:
Changes in the economy
Increase in service sector jobs
Changes in demographics
Increased age at first marriage; increase of dual-earner couples who demand entertainment on nights and weekends; aging population which requires medical care 24 hours a day
Changes in technology
Round-the-clock offices are becoming the norm

23. Shift Couples
Shift couples are couples who structure their lives and work into a turn-taking, alternating system of paid work and family work.
Shift couples have reported lower marital satisfaction, more distress, and increased rate of divorce.
Conversely, they save money on childcare, a parent is always with the children, and there is increased opportunity for higher wages.

24. At-Home Fathers and Breadwinning Mothers
These relationships seem to be a role reversal, where men and women simply switch traditional gender roles, but this does not seem to be the case.
Men seem to stay home due to disability, unemployment, retirement, or school and not due to wanting to care for the home (as we might expect with traditional gender roles).

25. At-Home Fathers and Breadwinning Mothers
Economic Impact
These couples may earn less money, but spend less on child care.
Social Impact
At-homes fathers may become a curiosity and become visible in their domestic role compared to invisible traditional housewives.
Marital Impact
Men don’t take over housework to the extent that women do, but they are likely to share or do most of the domestic work.
High levels of empathy, communication, and appreciation have been found.

26. At-Home Fathers and Breadwinning Mothers
Parental Impact
Fathers develop much closer relationship with their children than they most likely otherwise would have.
Personal Impact
This often results in a shuffling of priorities and the construction of a new social identity for both men and women.

27. Family Issues in the Workplace
Economic Discrimination
Women earn, on average, 80% of what men earn.
This is largely due to occupational differences wherein male-dominated jobs tend to pay more.
Sexual Harassment
Abuse of power: unwanted sexual advances and any verbal or physical sexual conduct as a condition of employment
Hostile environment: acting in sexual ways to interfere with a person’s performance by creating a hostile or offensive environment

28. Family Issues in the Workplace
Childcare
Finding reliable, safe, and affordable childcare can become a huge frustration.
This can be in-home, in centers, with relatives, or in nursery schools.
Childcare for older children is also necessary. This primarily comes in the form of school and after-school programs.
However, these programs are often not consistent and many children end up in self-care, where they care for themselves without the supervision of an adult or older adolescent.

29. Family Issues in the Workplace
Inflexible Work Environments
Many US employers still run their businesses as if every worker were male with a stay-at-home wife or are wealthy enough to afford domestic help.
They seem to ignore the large numbers of women in the workforce.
Companies could provide on-site childcare, flexible sick policies, and paid maternal and paternal leave to help families cope with childcare responsibilities.

30. Unemployment
Men are especially affected by unemployment due to their identity being so closely tied to that of provider.
When men are unemployed, they are at an increased risk of emotional withdrawal, spousal abuse, marital distress, and alcohol abuse.

31. Reducing Work-Family Conflict
Family Policy is a set of objectives concerning family well-being and government measures aimed at achieving those objectives.
Policies to make work more flexible
Options for flextime, or flexible work schedules, would allow individuals to adjust their work to their life.
Policies to help provide parents with childcare
Family leave policies
Policies to ensure families receive an adequate wage and to protect them from discrimination

32. Reducing Work-Family Conflict
Families are not only emotional relationship, they are work relationships.
Families must negotiate their division of labor within the home regarding cooking, cleaning, childcare, planning a budget, and mowing the lawn. These tasks are fundamental to maintaining good family functioning.
Families must also determine how they will earn an income. We spend 20 – 80 hours a week at our jobs, and negotiating time successfully will reduce work’s conflict with home.

33. Coming Apart: Separation and Divorce
Chapter 13

34. The Meaning of Divorce Legal Meaning Fault- Based Divorce
a person alleges that his or her spouse is responsible for the failed marriage through such actions as adultery, cruel and inhuman treatment, mental cruelty, habitual drunkenness, and desertion.
No-Fault Divorce
the couple can divorce without either having to accuse the other or prove the other responsible for the failure of their marriage. They can simply claim that irreconcilable differences make it impossible for them to continue as married

35. The Realities of Divorce
Stations of Divorce
Emotional Divorce
When one or both spouses disengages from the marriage
Legal Divorce
The court-ordered termination of a marriage
Economic Divorce
The dividing of property, money, and resources
The Coparental Divorce
Deals with issues of child custody, visitation, and support
The Community Divorce
The juggling of ex-in-laws and friends
The Psychic Divorce
When one again feels like a separate individual

36. Divorce in the US Ratio Measure of Divorce Crude Divorce Rate
Calculating the ratio of marriages to divorces in a given year to identify the commonality of each
Crude Divorce Rate
The number of divorces in a giver year per 1,000 people
Refined Divorce Rate
The number of divorces in a giver year per 1,000 marriages
Predictive Divorce Rate
An estimate of how many new marriages will end in divorce

37. Demographic Factors Affecting Divorce
Employment
Low-status occupations have higher divorce rates than those in high-status occupations.
Income
The higher the family’s income, the lower the divorce rate.
Educational Level
Those with higher education tend to have lower divorce rates.
Ethnicity
African Americans have the highest rates of divorce.
Religion
A high frequency of religious attendance lowers the risk of divorce.

38. Life Course Factors Affecting Divorce
Age at Time of Marriage
The younger one gets married, the higher the risk of divorce.
Premarital Pregnancy and Birth
Becoming pregnant or giving birth prior to marriage increase the likelihood of divorce.
Cohabitation
Cohabiting prior to marriage increases the risk of later divorce.
Remarriage
The divorce rate for remarriages is higher than for first marriages.
Intergeneration Transmission
Person’s whose parents are divorced have greater odds of divorcing themselves.

39. Family Processes Marital Happiness Children Marital Problems
Low levels of happiness in the early years of marriage increase the risk of divorce. This risk decreases as the marriage goes on
Children
Couples who have children decrease their risk of divorce.
Marital Problems
Problems can arise due to infidelity, alcohol or drug abuse, growing apart, in-laws, and communication troubles.
Serve as proximal causes of later divorce – things that are present in daily life that raise the probability of divorce
Also serve as distal causes – those things that each person brings to the relationship (i.e. education, income, religion, etc.)

40. The Process of Separation
Moving towards divorce is a process, not a single event.
This process is referred to as ‘uncoupling.’
Initiator
One person who is unable to find happiness in the relationship and initiates the end of the relationship.
Separation Distress
Distress caused by the absence of one’s spouse.
Each person must create a new identity apart from the ‘couple’ identity. He /She must transition into a new routine and recover from his/her distress.
Many find that dating new people helps eliminate separation distress.

41. Consequences of Divorce
Economic
No-fault divorce laws systematically impoverish women and children.
Women usually gain custody of children following a divorce and are therefore responsible for their economic stability.
Triple consequences of age, gender, and ethnicity.
Alimony
A monetary payment a former spouse makes to the other to meet his/her economic needs.
Child Support
A monetary payment made by the non-custodial parent to the custodial to assist in child-rearing expenses.
Employment opportunities for divorced women are often constrained by the necessity of caring for children.

42. Consequences of Divorce
Non-economic
Compared to married persons divorced individuals experience:
Higher levels of depression
Lower levels of mental and physical health
Lower levels of happiness
Increased social isolation
Greater difficulty raising children
Less satisfying sex lives
Higher levels of personal growth
Greater autonomy

43. Children and Divorce
Slightly more than half of all divorces involve children.
Binuclear Family
The family parents create when they divorce making their children part of two households
Children’s reaction to news of a divorce depends on how that news is disclosed.
Three Stages of Divorce for Children
Initial Stage
Extremely stressful
Transition Stage
Restructuring the family
Restablization Stage
Economic and social changes have been incorporated into everyday life

44. Children and Divorce
Following a divorce, children face several developmental tasks:
Acknowledging parent’s separation
Disengaging from parental conflicts
Resolving loss
Resolving anger and self-blame
Accepting the finality of divorce
Achieving realistic expectations for later relationship success

45. Children and Divorce Long-term effects of divorce on children
Reduction of family income
Many children experience weakened ties with their fathers
Reduced school performance
Increased chances of dropping-out
Worsened and increased behavioral problems
Increased likelihood of becoming a teen parent
Not all children of divorced parents experience these consequences.

46. Child Custody Sole Custody Split Custody Joint Custody
Custody of children is awarded to mothers in 90% of cases.
Types of custody
Sole Custody
The child lives with one parent who has sole responsibility for making all decisions regarding his or her upbringing
Split Custody
The children in the family are divided between the divorcing parents
Joint Custody
Joint Legal Custody – child lives with one parent but both parents share decision-making
Joint Physical Custody – child actually lives with both parents, splitting time between households

47. Child Custody
Noncustodial parent involvement exists on a continuum in terms of caregiving, decision making, and parent–child interaction, from highly involved to completely removed.
Mandatory Visitation
Rather than award or grant visitation rights to noncustodial parents, we should treat visitation as an obligation of parents and an expectation to be enforced by authorities
Divorce Mediation
The process in which a mediator attempts to assist divorcing couples in resolving personal, legal, and parenting issues in a cooperative manner
Has the goal of promoting shared parenting rather than focusing solely on legal matters

48. What to Do about Divorce
Some have argued that instituting no-fault divorce laws have made divorce too easy to obtain and advocate for stricter laws.
Others have argued that we should re-stigmatize divorce to lessen its social acceptability.
Still others have suggested that we offer more support to two-earner households and to low-income families to ease stresses.
Yet, if we can’t reduce or eliminate divorce we should at least do what we can to protect those going through divorce, especially children.