1. List of questions
1. Semasiology. Two trends in semasiology. Word-meaning. Referential and functional approaches to meaning. Types of meaning. 2. Homonymy in English. 3. Synonymy. Classification of synonyms. 4. Antonyms. 5. Morpheme. Structural types of words. The stem of a word. Functions of roots, suffixes, prefixes, inflections. 6. The basic ways of word-formation. 7. Secondary ways of word formation. 8. Etymology. The role of native and borrowed elements. Etymological doublets. 9. Phraseology. Different principles of classification of phraseological units. 10. The basic variants of the English language. «Word Englishes». 11. Inventory of stylistics: Expressive means and stylistic devices. Tropes. 12. Stylistic differentiation of The English vocabulary. 13. Functional styles of the English language (formal, colloquial, publicistic). 14. Functional styles of the English language (the belles-lettres style, scientific prose, newspapers). 15. Stylistic syntax. Syntactical stylistic devices. 16. Stylistic lexicology. Lexical stylistic devices. 17. Stylistic phonetics. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. 18.Syntactical stylistic devices. 18. Syntactical stylistic devices. 19. Colloquial stratum of words. Literary stratum of words. 20. Stylistic devices: Metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, zeugma. 21. The system of English sounds. Classification of sounds. 22. The phoneme. The system of English phonemes. 23. Phonemes and allophones. 24. The system of English consonants and vowels. 25. Syllable. Syllable division. Syllable formation.

2. List of questions
26. Modifications of English consonants in connected speech.
27. Modifications of English vowels in connected speech.
28. Word stress. Manifestation of word stress and its linguistic functions.
29. Rhythm and rhythmic groups.
30. Intonation and prosody. Basic intonation patterns.
31. General characteristics of the Old English period. Outer and inner history of English.
32. General characteristics of the Middle English period. Outer and inner history of English.
33. General characteristics of the New English period. Outer and inner history of English.
34. Scandinavian invasion and Norman invasion and their effect on the English language.
35. The first Consonant Shift. Grimm's Law. Verner's Law.
36. The first Vowel Shift.
37. Development of the analytical system.
38. Written records. Formation of the English national language.
39. Ethymological strata in modern English.
40. Geographical expansion of English in the 17-th - 20th centuries and its effect on the language.
41. Parts of speech. Classification. Grammatical categories.
42. The sentence. Major aspects. The distributive model. The transformational model.
43. Major and minor parts of speech.
44. Word combinations. Principles of classification.
45. The Compound Sentence.
46. The Complex Sentence. The Composite Sentence.
47. The Noun and its grammatical categories (Gender, Number, Case).
48. The Verb. General characteristics. Grammatical categories (Voice, Aspect, Tense, Mood, Person, Number).
49. Non-finite forms of the verb. Grammatical Categories.
50.The Adjective. Grammatical Categories.

3. Phonetics

4. Glossary Lower teeth нижние зубы Mid-open vowel
гласный среднего подъема
Monophthong
монофтонг
Nasal
носовой
Nasal cavity
носовая полость
Nasal plosion
носовой взрыв
Nasal sonorant
носовой сонант
Occlusive
смычный
Open syllable
открытый слог
Open vowel
открытый гласный
Palatal
нёбный
Palatalization
палатализация
Palate
нёбо
Phoneme
фонема
Plosion
взрыв
Post-alveolar
заальвеолярный
Received Pronunciation
британское литературное произношение
Reduced vowel
редуцированный гласный
Reduction
редукция
Retroflex articulation
ретрофлексивная артикуляция
Rhythm
ритм
Scale
шкала
Soft palate
мягкое нёбо
Sonorant
сонант
Stop consonant
взрывной, смычный согласный
Stress
ударение
Syllable
слог
Timbre
тембр
Tempo
темп
Tense vowel
напряженный гласный
Tongue tip
кончик языка
Upper lip
верхняя губа
Upper teeth
верхние зубы
Velar
велярный, задненебный, постпалатальный
Velum
Vocal cords
голосовые связки
Voiced consonant
звонкий согласный
Voice range
диапазон голоса
Voiceless consonant
глухой согласный
Accommodation
аккомодация
Adaptation
адаптация
Affricate
аффриката
Alveolar ridge, teeth ridge
альвеолы
Apical
апикальный
Articulation
артикуляция
Aspiration
аспирация
Assimilation
ассимиляция
Back of the tongue
задняя часть языка
Back vowel
гласный заднего ряда
Bilabial
губно-губной
Central vowel
гласный среднего ряда
Closed syllable
закрытый слог
Close vowel
закрытый гласный
Cluster
сочетание звуков
Constrictive
щелевой
Dental
зубной
Diphthong
дифтонг
Dorsal
дорсальный
Elision
элизия
Emphasis
эмфаза
Emphatic
эмфатический
Front vowel
гласный переднего ряда
General American
американское литературное произношение
Glottal
образованный в голосовой щели
Glottal stop
твердый приступ
Glottis
голосовая щель
Hard palate
твердое небо
Interdental
межзубный
Intonation
интонация
Lateral
боковой
Lateral plosion
боковой взрыв
Lateral sonorant
боковой сонант
Lax vowel
ненапряженный гласный
Linking
связка
Logical stress
логическое ударение
Loss of plosion
потеря взрыва
Lower lip
нижняя губа

5. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds
21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds. (Main definitions)
Sounds
Produced by humans
Phonemes (allophones)
Consonants
The consonants articulation involves the obstruction
Vowels
The vowels articulation is characterized by the absence of any obstruction or narrowing in the vocal tract
Other
Main definitions
Sounds are combinations of the acoustic waves.
Units of the phonetic system which help to recognize and distinguish words of the language are generally called phonemes.
Different phonetic realizations of a phoneme are known as allophones.
Minimal pairs are the pairs of words which are different in respect of one sound. Words like pin, tin, sin are distinguished by a change in the first consonantal element so the phoneme p, t, s may be revealed.
The two main groups of sounds in the phonetics are consonants and vowels.

6. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds
21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds. (Organs of speech)
Organs of speech
Active-movable are the organs of speech that are taking the active part in the sounds formation
The passive organs of speech stay non moving during the process of articulation
The air passage:
Diaphragm
Lungs
Larynx
Supraglottal cavities
Pharynx
Mouth
Nasal cavities
Speech characteristics
Active - movable
The vocal cords
The tongue
The back of the tongue
The front
The blade
The tip
The lips
The soft palate
The uvula
The pharynx (the back wall)
The lower jaw
The lungs
Passive
The teeth
The teeth ridge
The hard palate
The bones resonators
Organs of speech

7. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds
21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds. (Consonants)
Consonants
Manner of noise production
Non-sonorous
Sonorous
Type of obstruction
Occlusive
Constrictive
Occlusive – constrictive
Place of obstruction
Labial
Bilabial
Labio-dental
Lingual
Fore lingual
Medio lingual
Back lingual
Glottal
Level of noise
Unicentral
Bicentral
Work of the vocal cords
Voiced
Voiceless
The degree of the muscular tension
Strong (Fortis)
Weak (Lenis)

8. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds
21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds. (Consonants)
English terminology
Specifics
Organs of speech
Russian terminology
Examples
Consonants
Согласные
The manner of noise production
Способ производства шума
Non-sonorous (noise)
Noise prevails over tone.
Глухой
Occlusive (stops, plosives)
They are stops because the breath is stopped, they are plosive because the they are realesed with an explosure.
Lips, tongue, teeth ridge
Смычный (иначе взрывной)
[p,b,t,d,k,g] [p,b] bilabial [t,d] forelingual alveolar [k,g] backlingual [p,t.k,] strong [b,d,g] weak pig, big, tag, dog, kengaroo, good
Constrictive (fricatives)
They are constrictive because the air passage is constricted, they are fricatives because the air passes through the narrowing with a friction.
Lips, teeth, tongue, teeth ridge, hard palate
Щелевой (иначе фрикативный)
[f,v, θ, ∂, s, z, ʃ, Ʒ, h] [f,v] labio dental [θ, ∂] forelingual, interdental [, s, z, ʃ, Ʒ] forelingual, alveolar [h] glottal far, vase,thin, this, sock, vase, she, hate
Occlusive – constrictive (affricates)
They are occlusive because a complete air stop is formed, they are constrictive because the air is released slowly with a friction.
Lips, tongue, teeth ridge, soft palate, hard palate.
Смычно - щелевой (иначе смычно-фрикативный)
[tʃ, dƷ] [tʃ, dƷ] occlusive-constrictive, forelingual, apical, bicentral chin, gin
Sonorous (sonorants)
Tone prevails over noise.
Звонкий (сонорный)
Occlusive
Complete obstruction is formed
Lips, soft palate, nasal cavity
[m, n, ŋ] most, nest, thing
Lateral
Боковой (латеральный)
Medial
Средний (срединный)
Nasal
Носовой (назальный)
[m] is occlusive, nasal. bilabial [n] is occlusive nasal. forelingual. apical, alveolar [ŋ] is occlusive. nasaL backlinguaL velar
Constrictive
Incomplete obstruction is formed
Lips, tongue, teeth ridge, hard palate
Щелевой
[l, w, j, r] like, week, jam, read
[l] is constrictive, lateral, forelingual, apical, alveolar
[w] is constrictive. medial, bilabial, bicentral [j] is constrictive. medial, mediolingual, palatal [r] is constrictive: medial, forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar.

9. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds
21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds. (Consonants)
Level of noise
Уровень шума
Unicentral
[θ, s, z, j]
Bicental
[Ʒ, ʃ, dƷ, tʃ, w]
Work of the vocal cords
Работа голосовых связок
Voiced
Звонкий
[b, d, g, v, ∂, z, ʃ, Ʒ, dƷ ]
Voiceless
Глухой
[p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ, h]
The level of the muscular tension
Уровень мышечного напряжения
Strong (Fortis)
Сильные (Fortis)
Weak (Lenis)
Слабый (Lenis)
Type of obstruction (the manner of articulation)
Тип обструкции (или особенности артикуляции)
Occlusive (stops, plosives)
They are stops because the breath is stopped, they are plosive because the they are realesed with an explosure.
Lips, tongue, teeth ridge
Смычный (иначе взрывной)
[p,b,t,d,k,g] [p,b] bilabial [t,d] forelingual alveolar [k,g] backlingual [p,t.k,] strong [b,d,g] weak pig, big, tag, dog, kengaroo, good
Constrictive (fricatives)
They are constrictive because the air passage is constricted, they are fricatives because the air passes through the narrowing with a friction.
Lips, teeth, tongue, teeth ridge, hard palate
Щелевой (иначе фрикативный)
[f,v, θ, ∂, s, z, ʃ, Ʒ, h] [f,v] labio dental [θ, ∂] forelingual, interdental [s, z, ʃ, Ʒ] forelingual, alveolar [h] glottal far, vase,thin, this, sock, vase, she, hate
Occlusive – constrictive (affricates)
They are occlusive because a complete air stop is formed, they are constrictive because the air is released slowly with a friction.
Lips, tongue, teeth ridge, soft palate, hard palate.
Смычно - щелевой (иначе смычно-фрикативный)
[tʃ, dƷ] [tʃ, dƷ] occlusive-constrictive, forelingual, apical, bicentral chin, gin

10. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds
21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds. (Consonants)
English terminology
Specifics
Organs of speech
Russian terminology
Examples
Consonants
Согласные
Place of obstruction (or place of articulation)
Место обструкции (место артикуляции)
Labial
Lips
Губной
Bilabial
Lip+lip
Губно-губной (билабиальный)
[b,p, m, w]
Labio-dental
Lip+teeth
Губно-зубной
[v, f]
Lingual
Tongue, teeth ridge
Язычный (лингвальный)
Fore lingual
Переднеязычный
Interdental
Переднезубной
Apical
Апикальный (кончик языка)
[θ, ∂]
Dental
Зубной
Do not exist in the English language
Dorsal
Дорсальный (лопатка языка)
Alveolar
Альвеолярный
[d ,t ,z, s, n, l]
Post-alveolar
Пост-альвеолярный
Cacuminal
Какуминальный
[r]
Palato-alveolar
Палато-альвеолярный
[Ʒ, ʃ, dƷ, tʃ]
Medio lingual
Front part of the tongue
Среднеязычный
Palatal
Палатальный
[j]
Back lingual
Back part of the tongue
Заднеязычный
Velar
Велярный
[g, k, ŋ]
Glottal
Glottis
Глоттальный (образованный в голосовой щели)
[h]

11. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds.
According to the degree of noise
Noise consonants
Sonorants
According to the manner of articulation
Occlusive - plosive
Constrictive
Occlusive - constrictive
Occlusive
Rolled
According to the work of the vocal cords
Voiced
Voiceless
According to the force of articulation
Lenis
Fortis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
According to the place of articulation
Labial
Bilabial b p m w
Labio dental v f
Lingual
Fore lingual
Inter dental
Apical ð θ
Dental
only russian
Dorsal
Alveolar d t z s n l
Post-alveolar
Cacuminal r
Palato-alveolar ʒ ʃ ʤ ʧ
Medio lingual
Palatal
j j
Back lingual
Velar g k Ƞ
Glottal h
According to the position of the soft palate
Oral
Nasal

12. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds.
Vowels
Stability of articulation
Monophthongs
Diphthongs
Tongue position
Front
Front-retracted
Central
Back-advanced
Height of the raised part (High, mid, low)
Length
Long
Short
Degree of tension
Tense
Lax
Lip positions
Neutral
Spread
Rounded

13. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds.
English terminology
Specifics
Organs of speech
Russian terminology
Examples
Vowels
Toungue, pharyngal and nasal cavities
Гласные
Stability of articulation
Стабильность артикуляции
Monophthongs
Pure quality of the sound
Монофтонги
[i, e, æ, α:, ɒ, ɔ:, ʊ, ᴧ, ɜ:, ǝ] [i] i - bit, pit, kitchen, y - busy, syllable, e - pretty, before, homeless, ie - bodies, studies, a - luggage [e] e - red, get, ea -bread, leather, a - many, any [æ] a - land, bad, sat [α:] ar - cart, star, a - grass, after, path, branch, au - aunt, laugh, ear - heart, al - calf, calm [ɒ] o - dog, rock, a - want, quality, ou, ow - cough, knowledge, au - sausge, Austria [ɔ:] or - corn, port, aw - law, drawn, ou, au - bought, fault, a- call, chalk, water, ore, oor, oar, our - shore, door, board, four, court [ʊ] u - full, o - wolf, woman, oo - look, wool, ou -would, could [ᴧ] u - mud, dull, butter, o - son,brother, nothing, ou - young, country, rough, oo - flood [ɜ:] ir, yr - sir, girl, bird, myrtle, er, ear, err - her, earl, heard, err, ur, urr - fur, cyrl, purr, wor - worm, worse, our - journalist [ǝ] e - mineral, president, a - ago, o - correct omit, u - suggest, support, i - possible, er - teacher, after, or - director, doctor, ure - picture, furniture, ou - dangerous, our - favour
Diphthongs
The organs of speech glide from one to another position
Дифтонг
[ei, ai, ɔi, aʊ, ɜʊ, iǝ, ɛǝ, ʊǝ] [ei] a - take, paper, made, ai, ay -main, say, ei, ey - vein, grey, they, ea - great, break, eigh - eight, neighbour [ai] i - like, write, y - my, type, igh - high, light, ie, ye - tie, rye, i +nd - kind, find, i + ld - child, mild, ei -neither, height, ign -sign [ɔi] oi - oil, noise, oy - boy, enjoy [aʊ] ou - house, sound, ow - now, town, ough - bought, plough [ɜʊ] o - so, home, oa + consonant - boat, road, ow - know, fellow, ou - shoulder, though, o + st - most,post, o + ll - roll, poll, o + ld - told, cold [iǝ] ere - here, severe, eer - deer, pioneer, ear - clear, near, ea - idea, real, ier - fierce, pierce [ɛǝ] are - care, parents, ear - bear, wear, ere - there, where [ʊǝ] u - cure, fury, oor - poor, moor, our - tour, tourist, ue - cruel , fluent, ewer, uer- fewer, truer
Diphthongoids
The organs of speech also glide from one to another position, but the starting point of the glide is not so obvious
Дифтонгоид
[i:, u:] [i:] e - be, scene, complete, ee - see, been, meet, ea - sea,mean, beaf, ie - field, believe, belief, ei, ey - key, receive, i -police [u:] oo - soon, mood, boot, o - to, lose, ou - soup, wound, through, u - rule, June, ew, ue, ui, oe - news, due, suit, shoe

14. 21. The system of English sounds. Classifications of sounds.
English terminology
Specifics
Organs of speech
Russian terminology
Examples
Vowels
Toungue, pharyngal and nasal cavities
Гласные
Tongue position
Front vowels
Front part of the tongue is raised to hard palate
Tongue, hard palate, lungs
Гласный переднего ряда
[i:, e, æ]
Front - retracted
Front part of the tongue (but close to central) is raised to hard palate
Редуцированный гласный переднего ряда
[i]
Central
Front part of the tongue is raised to the back part of the hard palate
Гласный среднего ряда
[ᴧ, ɜ:, ǝ]
Back vowels
The tongue is in the back part of the mouth, its back is raised towards the soft palate
Tongue, soft palate, hard palate, lungs
Гласный заднего ряда
[α:, ɒ, ɔ:, u:]
Back advanced
The tongue is in the back part of the mouth, its central part is raised towards the soft palate
Гласный заднего продвинутого ряда
[ʊ]
Close (Narrow / broad)
Back of the tongue is moved close towards the palate
Закрытый гласный
[i:, u:] [i:, ʊ]
Open (Narrow / broad)
The tongue is moved as low as possible
Открытый гласный
[e, ɜ:, ɜ] [ᴧ, ǝ, ɛ]
Mid vowels (Narrow / broad)
The highest part of the tongue occupies the intermediate position
Гласный среднего подъема
[ɔ:, ɔ] [æ, α:, ɒ, α]
Lip position
Unrounded
The lips are neutral or spread
Lips, mouth, lungs
[i:, i, e, æ, α:, ᴧ, ɜ:, ǝ]
Rounded
The lips are drawn together
[ɒ, ɔ:, ʊ, u:]
Character of vowel end
Checked (tense)
The end of the vowel is strong (mostly in the closed syllables)
Напряженный гласный
Free (lax)
Mostly in the open syllables
Ненапряженный гласный
Vowel length
Long vowels
Длинный гласный
[i:, α:, ɔ:, u:, ɜ:]
Short vowels
Короткий гласный
[i, e, ɒ, ʊ, ᴧ, ǝ]

15. 22. The phoneme. The system of English phonemes.
Sounds
Produced by humans
Phonemes (allophones)
Consonants
The consonants articulation involves the obstruction
Vowels
The vowels articulation is characterized by the absence of any obstruction or narrowing in the vocal tract
Other
Main definitions
Sounds are combinations of the acoustic waves.
Units of the phonetic system which help to recognize and distinguish words of the language are generally called phonemes.
Different phonetic realizations of a phoneme are known as allophones.
Minimal pairs are the pairs of words which are different in respect of one sound. Words like pin, tin, sin are distinguished by a change in the first consonantal element so the phoneme p, t, s may be revealed.
The two main groups of sounds in the phonetics are consonants and vowels.
The number of phonemes varies from language to language
There are 44 phonemes in the English language (24 consonants and 20 vowels) (see question 21)

16. 22. The phoneme. The system of English phonemes.
Consonants
Vowels
/р/ as in pill
/æ/ as in pat
/b/ as in bill
/a:/ as in part
/f/ as in fin
/e/ as in pet
/d/ as in din
/i/ as in pit
/к/ as in cot
/i:/ as in peat
/g/ as in got
/ɒ/ as in pot
/m/ as in meat
/o:/ as in port
/n/ as in neat
/ʊ/ as in put
/ŋ/ as in sing
/u:/ as in boot
/l/ as in lake
/ᴧ/ as in but
/r/ as in rake
/ɜ:/ as in bird
/f/ as in fast
/ǝ/ as in ago
/v/ as in vast
/ei/ as in bay
/θ/ as in thin
/ai/ as in buу
/∂/ as in then
/ɔi/ as in boy
/s/ as in sink
/аʊ/ as in bout
/z/ as in zinc
/ǝʊ/ as in boat
/ʃ/ as in ship
/iǝ/ as in beer
/Ʒ/as in beige
/еǝ/ as in bare
/h/ as in hat
/ʊǝ/ as in doer, dour
/tʃ/ in chin
/dƷ/as in gin
/w/ as in wet
/j/ as in yet
Relevant and irrelevant features
The features which cannot be changed without the change of meaning are called relevant or distinctive.
The features which can change the meaning are called irrelevant.
Distinctive features
Non-distinctive features
Consonants
Place of articulation;
Manner of articulation:
Absence / presence of voice.
aspiration/no aspiration
Vowels
The vowel quality;
The length (in the past), currently it is less important.
the length (current tendency)

17. 23. Phonemes and allophones.
Main definitions
Sounds are combinations of the acoustic waves.
Units of the phonetic system which help to recognize and distinguish words of the language are generally called phonemes.
Different phonetic realizations of a phoneme are known as allophones.
Minimal pairs are the pairs of words which are different in respect of one sound. Words like pin, tin, sin are distinguished by a change in the first consonantal element so the phoneme p, t, s may be revealed.
The two main groups of sounds in the phonetics are consonants and vowels.
The number of phonemes varies from language to language
There are 44 phonemes in the English language (24 consonants and 20 vowels) (see question 21)
Sounds
Produced by humans
Phonemes (allophones)
Consonants
The consonants articulation involves the obstruction
Vowels
The vowels articulation is characterized by the absence of any obstruction or narrowing in the vocal tract
Other

18. 23. Phonemes and allophones.
3 aspects of the Phoneme
Abstract
Material (sound)
Functional (when a word appears)
The requirements to the allophone of the same phoneme are:
They possess similar articulating feature but can shoe considerable phonetic differences.
They never occur in the same phonetic context.
They are not capable of differentiating the meaning.
We cannot produce a Phoneme, we produce allophones. But they are accompanied by several sounds and personal characteristics.
The actual sounds which we hear, are called phones.
The native speakers do not pay attention to the allophones (phones), which do not change the meaning of the words; but every nature speaker has a generalized idea of distinctive features that cannot be changed without changing the meaning.

19. 24. The system of English consonants and vowels. See 21.
Manner of noise production
Non-sonorous
Sonorous
Type of obstruction
Occlusive
Constrictive
Occlusive – constrictive
Place of obstruction
Labial
Bilabial
Labio-dental
Lingual
Fore lingual
Medio lingual
Back lingual
Glottal
Level of noise
Unicentral
Bicentral
Work of the vocal cords
Voiced
Voiceless
The degree of the muscular tension
Strong (Fortis)
Weak (Lenis)

20. 24. The system of English consonants and vowels. See 21.
Stability of articulation
Monophthongs
Diphthongs
Tongue position
Front
Front-retracted
Central
Back-advanced
Height of the raised part (High, mid, low)
Length
Long
Short
Degree of tension
Tense
Lax
Lip positions
Neutral
Spread
Rounded