1. Chapter 8
development across the life span

2. Why Study How Behavior Develops?
By studying the various areas of development, we can discover what patterns of behavior normally develops
Allows groups to prepare for the next step of their development (ex- help prepare a child when to walk, help prepare a parent of when a child should walk, etc)
All development is different for each person, however, rates of development usually fit into a pattern that is similar for most people

3. Nature vs Nurture
The nature vs nurture debate is a debatable controversy in psychology.
Nature refers to heredity- Genes, biological instances
Nurture refers to upbringing
Ex- Is someone inherently violent? Or is it learned?

4. Continuity vs Discontinuity
Continuity vs Discontinuity is another controversy in Psychology
Continuity – Development over time
Discontinuity- In stages
Do humans develop over time or in stages?

5. 5 Principles of Development
Development follows a predictable pattern
Ex- Babies develop downward from the head to the feet and develops in to out (arms, shoulders, elbows, wrists, fingers)
Individuals first develop general responses and then proceed to specific responses
Ex- Baby reaching for a toy
Development is a continuous process- There can be stages but no one knows when the stage begins and ends

6. Each stage has unique features- each stage is expressed differently, depending on the society and the period of development involved (ie- the rebellion period of adolescence is a feature of our own society and culture)
Early development is more important than later development: crucial behaviors are learned during early childhood (ie- walking, talking, isolation, etc)

7. Developmental Research Designs
LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development
Human development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death
Longitudinal design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time
cohort effect: impact on development when a group of people share common time period or life experience

8. LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development
Longitudinal Design
LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development
Compare
Compare
Tested at 1 year
(Time 1)
Again at 4 years
(Time 2)
Again at 7 years
(Time 3)
Same Participants
Different Times

9. Developmental Research Designs
LO 8.1 Special Research Methods Used to Study Development
Cross-sectional design: research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time
Cross-sequential design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years

11. LO 8.2 The Relationship between Heredity and Environmental Factors
Nature versus Nurture
LO 8.2 The Relationship between Heredity and Environmental Factors
AP: Nature Versus Nurture
Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Behavioral genetics: focuses on nature vs. nurture

12. Genetics and Development
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births
AP: Nature Versus Nurture
Genetics: the science of inherited traits
behavioral genetics
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

13. Figure DNA Molecule
In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.

14. Genetics and Development
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
AP: Nature Versus Nurture
Gene: section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements
dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait
recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

16. Figure 8.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring. (a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.

17. Figure 8.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring. (b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4 possibility of having PKU.

18. Genetics and Development
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
AP: Nature Versus Nurture
Genetic disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease
Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
Chromosome disorders include Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome

19. Genetics and Development
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
AP: Conception and Gestation
Conception: the moment at which a female becomes pregnant
Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg
Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm
Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby

20. LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Conception and Twins
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
AP: Conception and Gestation
Monozygotic twins: identical twins
formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins
occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

21. Figure 8.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.

22. LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy
AP: Conception and Gestation
Germinal period: first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
embryo is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization

23. LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy
AP: Conception and Gestation
Embryonic period: the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
critical periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant
teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect

25. LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy
AP: Conception and Gestation
Fetal period: the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
fetus: name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby
viability: the point at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb, usually about weeks

26. Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood
AP: Maturation of Motor Skills
Infants are born with reflexes that help them survive
grasping
Moro (startle)
rooting
stepping
Sucking

29. Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood
The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth
Brain development
synaptic pruning: unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells

30. Cognitive Development
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities/Identify Key Contributors
Cognitive development: the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage theory of cognitive development based on observation of infants and children
schemes: mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situations and events

32. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities
Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment
object permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

33. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities
Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world
egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes
centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

34. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities
Preoperational Stage (cont’d)
conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature
irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

35. Figure 8.7 Conservation Experiment A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.

36. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Piaget’s Stage Theory
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities
Concrete operations stage: third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-aged child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking
Formal operations: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

37. AP
Piaget’s Stage Theory

38. Criticisms of Piaget Theory
Formal Operations found in only 30-40% of adolescents and adults
Absent in many non literate cultures
Training can influence performance

39. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Vygotsky’s Theory
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities/Identify Key Contributors
Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

40. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Vygotsky’s Theory
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher
private speech: Vygotsky viewed this as a way for a child to “think out loud” and advance cognitively

41. LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Language Development
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Language Acquisition, Development, and Use
Language development allows children to:
think in words rather than images
ask questions
communicate their needs
form concepts
Child-directed speech: children attend to higher-pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech

42. Stages of Language Development
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Language Acquisition, Development, and Use
Cooing
Babbling
One-Word Speech (Holophrases)
Telegraphic Speech
Whole sentences

43. Autism Spectrum Disorder
LO 8.6 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
AP: Maturation of Cognitive Abilities
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): developmental disorder encompassing a range of problems in thinking, feeling, language, and social skills
myths relating ASD and vaccines have been debunked

44. Temperament
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization
Temperament: behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth
easy: regular, adaptable, and happy
difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable
slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change

45. Attachment
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization
Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver
secure: willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon her return
avoidant: unattached; explores without “touching base”

46. Attachment Attachment (cont’d)
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization
Attachment (cont’d)
ambivalent: insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return
disorganized-disoriented: insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed

47. Attachment Konrad Lorenz
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization/Identify Key Contributors
Konrad Lorenz
Imprinting: how infant animals attach themselves to or follow the first animal/person they see immediately after birth

48. Attachment Harlow monkey experiment
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization/Identify Key Contributors
Harlow monkey experiment
In this experiment The wire surrogate “mother” provides the food for this infant rhesus monkey. But the infant spends all its time with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate. According to Harlow, this demonstrates the importance of contact comfort in attachment.

49. Self-Concept Self-concept is the image you have of yourself
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization
Self-concept is the image you have of yourself
based on your interactions with the important people in your life.

50. Erikson’s Stages of Development
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
AP: Temperament, Attachment, and Socialization/Identify Key Contributors
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

51. Puberty and Adolescence
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
AP: Maturational Changes in Adolescence
Adolescence: the period of life from about age thirteen to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
Puberty: the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak
period of about four years

52. Sexual Development & Identity
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
AP: Maturational Changes in Adolescence/Identify Key Contributors
Alfred Kinsey
Sexual orientation is a continuum, not an either/or situation
The Kinsey Study

53. Egocentric Thinking Formal operations may begin to emerge
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
AP: Maturational Changes in Adolescence
Formal operations may begin to emerge
Piaget’s final stage
thinking of hypothetical situations
egocentric thought remains

54. Egocentric Thinking
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
AP: Maturational Changes in Adolescence
Personal fable: young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm
Imaginary audience: young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

55. Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
AP: Maturational Changes in Adolescence/Models of Moral Development
Preconventional morality: behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior
Conventional morality: behavior is governed by conforming to society’s norms of behavior
Postconventional morality: behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual
may be in disagreement with accepted social norms

57. Gender Differences Cognitive differences
LO 8.9 How Men and Women Differ in Thinking, Social Behavior, and Personality
AP: How Sex and Gender Affect Socialization
Cognitive differences
Differences in male and female test scores on verbal abilities, math skills, and spatial skills is probably due to psychological and social issues rather than biological causes
Social and personality differences
Perceived differences are often the result of stereotyped thinking about the sexes
“report” versus “relate” communication styles
Men listen with the left hemisphere of the brain; women listen with both

58. Erikson’s Fifth Stage
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
AP: Maturational Changes in Adolescence
Identity versus role confusion: fifth stage of personality development
the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self
Parent–teen conflict

59. LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
Derived from Erikson, 1950

60. Physical Changes and Aging
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Adulthood begins in the early twenties and ends with old age and death
divided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood
emerging adulthood, time from late adolescence through the 20s

61. Physical Changes and Aging
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric
ends at about age fifty with menopause: the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability
Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males

62. Physical Changes and Aging
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Increase in health problems
Decrease in reaction time
Challenges in memory most likely caused by stress and high volumes of information to maintain

63. Erikson’s Last Three Stages
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Intimacy and Aging
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Intimacy versus isolation : an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self

64. Erikson’s Last Three Stages
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Generativity versus stagnation : providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteering

65. Erikson’s Last Three Stages
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
How Parenting Styles Influence Development
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Parenting styles
Authoritarian
Permissive
Permissive neglectful
Permissive indulgent
Authoritative

66. Erikson’s Last Three Stages
LO 8.10 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Ego integrity versus despair : sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego

67. LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Derived from Erikson, 1950

68. LO 8.11 Theories of Why Aging Occurs and Stages of Death and Dying
Theories of Aging
LO 8.11 Theories of Why Aging Occurs and Stages of Death and Dying
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Cellular clock theory: based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce
once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate
Wear-and-tear theory: as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body’s tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage

69. LO 8.11 Theories of Why Aging Occurs and Stages of Death and Dying
Theories of Aging
LO 8.11 Theories of Why Aging Occurs and Stages of Death and Dying
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Free radical theory: oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go
Activity theory: theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby

70. Stages of Death and Dying
LO 8.11 Theories of Why Aging Occurs and Stages of Death and Dying
AP: Physical and Cognitive Changes in Aging
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance

71. Cross-Cultural Views on Death
LO 8.12 Some Cross-Cultural Differences in Views of Death and Dying
Cultures are diverse in their views on death and dying
Hindus
Northern Cheyenne
Navajo