1. LECTURE 9
CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

2. Structure of language
Linguists typically describe language using the following features i.e. :
Lexicon – vocabulary, refers to the words contained in a language. E.g. tidur, kakak , sihat.

3. Structure of language
Syntax and grammar – the system of rules governing words forms and how words should be strung together to form meaningful utterances. E.g. in English to indicate plurality, cat  cats, to place adjectives before nouns, not after (e.g. small dog not dog small)

4. Structure of language
Phonology- system of rules governing how words should sound (pronounciation) in a given language. E.g. in English we don’t pronounce new the same as sew.
Semantic – what words mean. E.g. table refers to a physical object that has four legs and a flat horizontal surface.

5. Structure of language
Pragmatics – system of rules governing how language is used and understood in given social and environment contexts.
E.g. the statement “It is cold” could be interpreted as a request to close a window or as a statement of fact about the temperature.

6. Structure of language
Phonemes are the smallest and most basic units of sound in a language (e.g the sound of the letter ‘H’)
Morphemes are the smallest and most basic units of meaning in a language (e.g. prefixes in English language, for instance, nonverbal means not verbal, non = not, unknown = not known, un = not)

7. Language differences across culture
The relationships between culture and language
they are intimately related. Culture influence the structure and functional use of language, and language can be thought of as the result or manifestation of culture.
No culture can be understood without understanding of its language and vice versa

8. Language differences across culture
Language influences and reinforces our cultural values and worldview
Therefore, understanding cultural influences on language has important implications for understanding cultural differences in worldview perspectives.

9. Language differences across culture
Culture and lexicons
self/other referents
The use of ‘I’ in American English is when one describes him/herself when talking to others irrespectively and the word ‘you’ to refer to another person or a group of people.
In Malaysian context, self-referents are diverse and are used in particular contexts.

10. Language differences across culture
In Japanese what you call yourself and others is totally dependent on the relationship between you and the other person. E.g teachers used the word teacher to refer themselves
In Japanese language a lower status person may use several self-referents depending on sex, degree of politeness. And degree of familiarity with the other person.

11. Language differences across culture
Counting system
-In Japanese language, different words are used to denote different things being counted.
Round, cylindrical objects are counted by the suffix hon (ippon, nihon, sanbon,etc)
Flat objects are countered by mai (ichimai, nimai, sanmai)
in English all objects are simply counted by the number, with no suffix or prefix.

12. Culture and pragmatics
Culture affects not only language lexicons, but also pragmatics
Pronoun use – Kashima & Kashima (1998) – less individualistic cultures tend to drop pronouns in their conversation.
Communication styles – Japanese rates ingroup relationships – coworkers and university colleagues as more intimate than American (a study by Gudykunst & Nishida (1986)).

13. Culture and pragmatics
Communication topics
- culture differences have also been documented in a number of other comm areas, such as apologies, children’s personal narrative, self-disclosure, and interpersonal criticism.

14. Culture,language and cognition
Sapir –Whorf Hypothesis (SWH)
Referred to as linguistic relativity – speakers of different languages think differently and that they do so because of the differences in their languages.

15. SWH
SWH suggests that people of different cultures think differently just by the very nature, structure, and function of their language. Their thought processes, their associations, their ways of interpreting the world may be different because they speak a different language and this language has helped shape their thought patterns.

16. SWH
SWH also suggests that people who speak more than one language may actually have different thought pattern when speaking different languages.

17. SWH
Support for SWH – Caroll and Casagrande (1958)- compared Navajo and English speakers to examine the relationship between system of shape classification in the Navajo language and the amount of attention children pay to to shape when classification of objects.

18. SWH
Navajo has interesting grammar feature that certain verbs of handling (e.g to pick or to drop) require special linguistic forms depending on what object is being handled and also different descriptions on shape of objects
Kay and Kempton (1984) – compared speakers of English and Tarahumara (Yucatan in Mexico) whereby Tahahumara speakers couldn’t distinguish the colour of blue and green

19. Challenges to SWH
Berlin and Kay (1969) in their study among international university student in US found a limited number of basic color terms in any language.

20. Bilingualism and culture
Minority group –affiliation hypothesis
- the immigrants bilinguals will tend to self-identify as members of an ethnic minority group and adopt the behavioral stereotypes of the majority culture about their minority as their own when they are operating in the language associated with their minority group.

21. Bilingualism and culture
To the extent that such stereotypes are accurate, the minority group affiliation will make the same predictions as does the CAH; when interacting in the 1st language, people will behave in ways more typical of their ancestral culture, which may be consistent with majority culture stereotypes of that culture. Language context would predict differences in behaviour and in personality.

22. Bilingualism and culture
Foreign language processing difficulties –arise because of nonfamiliarity or lack of fluency in speaking a lanaguage and becoz of uncertanty or ambiguity about the intended meaning of messages when received in a foreign language.

23. Bilingualism and culture
Foreign language effect – temporary decline in the thinking ability of people who are using a foreign language in which they are less proficient than their native language.

24. Bilingualism and culture
Culture-affiliation hypothesis – is simply that immigrant bilinguals will tend to affiliate themselves with the values and beliefs of the culture associated with the language in which they are currently operating. When the language is switched, so are the cultural values with which they affiliate.

25. Cultural gestures (gerakan) (CG)
-Speech illustrators (SI)– movements of limbs esp. hands
Objective #1 : to facilitate on what is being said
Culturally different
E.g. Latin & Middle Eastern – encourage large illustrative gestures
East Asian – discourage gesticulation, more courteous (lemah lembut)
Germans count using thumb for “1”, Americans use index finger

26. Cultural gestures (CG)
Objective #2 : to convey verbal meaning without words  emblems
E.g. A-OK sign, peace

27. Cultural gestures (CG)
Advantage of emblems:
when voices are not heard or speech are not allowed

28. Culture and Gaze (renungan)
Associated with dominance, power, aggression in human & animals, affiliation, nurturance
Culturally different meaning in different cultures.
E.g. contact cultures (favours physical touch or contact whilst interacting), allow more gazing than non/low contact culture

29. Culture and Gaze (renungan)
Gaze is often understood as a sign of respect
In USA looking directly in the eyes is respectful; looking away is disrespect RUDE
In Malaysia?? – possessed by evil spirit??
Gaze could be offensive
in some cultures.

30. Culture and Voices
Voice serves another mode for non-verbal behavior and carry many different meanings  known as “paralinguistic cues”.
e.g. intonation, pitch, speech rate, pause,
silence, volume.
Anger – voice gets louder, speech rates increase
Sadness –decrease speech rates

31. Cultural & Interpersonal space, and touch
Use of space in interpersonal interactions  non-verbal beh. called proxemics.
4 levels of ip.space in soc.r/ship, i.e:
Intimate,
Personal,
Social
Public
Interpersonal space regulates intimacy

32. Cultural & Interpersonal space, and touch
Touch is known as haptics
Cultures regulate touch
Violation of cultural rules regarding touch may produce aversive consequences