1. VIRTUE ETHICS

2. Sir Leslie Stephen( )
“Morality is internal. The moral law…has to be expressed in the form “be this,” not in the form “do this”… The true moral law says “hate not,” instead of “kill not”.. The only mode of stating the moral law must be as a rule of character.”
                                      

3. Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)
We are not concerned to know what goodness is, but how we are to become good men, for this alone gives the study (of ethics) its practical value.

4. Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is currently one of three major approaches in normative ethics.
Normative ethics takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct.
This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.

5. The 3 Major normative Ethical Theories:

6. Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics believes in the possibility of universal moral value, but it has a decidedly different approach than utilitarianism and deontology.
Utilitarianism, evaluates moral actions based primarily on the consequences: morally good action are those that bring the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people.

7. Virtue Ethics
For deontologist like Kant, the moral reasoning is quite different, focusing on the logic of the moral action.
Is the moral choice one that could be rationally universalized?

8. Virtue Ethics
Virtue Ethics may, initially, be identified as the one that emphasizes the virtues, or moral character.
In contrast to the approach which emphasizes duties or rules (deontology) or that which emphasizes the consequences of actions (consequentialism).

9. Virtue ethics contrasted with other ethical systems:
The methods of virtue ethics are in contrast to the dominant methods in ethical philosophy, which focus on actions.
For example, both deontological ethics and consequentialist systems try to provide guiding principles for actions that allow a person to decide how to behave in any given situation.

10. Virtue ethics contrasted with other ethical systems:
Virtue ethics focuses on what makes a good person, rather than what makes a good action.
As such it is often associated with a teleological ethical system - one that seeks to define the proper telos (goal or end) of the human person. (Happiness)

11. Happiness
Happiness, or Aristotle, is expressed in the Greek word eudemonia, which means “actively exercising your soul's powers.”
What exactly does this mean? It means that achieving happiness necessarily involves fulfilling your distinctive function of a human being, living your life in accordance with reason and virtue.

12. Virtue Ethics
From the ethical perspective of Virtue Ethics, it is not the moral quality of the action that is paramount.
It is instead the moral quality of the person that is fundamental.

13. Act vs. Moral Quality of the Person
Example: A person giving donation to a college.
Motivation for such a gesture.

14. Greek Roots
The origins of this theory date at least back to Plato and Aristotle.
Virtue Ethics shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it.
These are arête (excellence or virtue) phronesis (practical or moral wisdom) and eudaimonia (usually translated as happiness or flourishing.)

15. Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)

16. Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE)
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
He wrote on diverse subjects, including physics, poetry, biology and zoology, logic, rhetoric, politics and government, and ethics.

17. Aristotle
For Aristotle and other believers in virtue ethics, it is the cultivation of a virtuous character that is the goal of ethics, to become a virtuous person.
The assumption is that genuinely virtuous people will act in morally principled ways as natural expression of the moral goodness.
And these moral actions will in turn strengthen their virtuous nature.

18. Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle categorized the virtues as moral and intellectual.
Aristotle identified nine intellectual virtues, the most important of which were sophia (theoretical wisdom) and phronesis (practical wisdom).

19. Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
The moral virtues are somewhat different in nature, and they include qualities such as being temperate, just, courageous, compassionate, generous, friendly, and truthful.

20. Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
Moral virtues are also developed over time, but unlike intellectual virtues that require a great deal of formal instruction, Aristotle believes that moral virtues are mainly developed through consistent and ongoing practice.
Becoming a compassionate person necessarily involves engaging in ongoing acts of compassion toward other deserving people.

21. Aristotle's Theory of the Virtues
Gradually, acting compassionately becomes a habitual way of thinking and behaving, an important element in the shaping of your character.
People who know you expect you to be compassionate in appropriate situations because this virtue reflects an intrinsic part of “who” you are.

22. VIRTUES: You Strive for the Golden Mean
Golden Mean: A moral philosophy that is based on the concepts of temperance (moderation), self-discipline, and balance.

23. Golden Mean
For example, the virtue of courage is a mean between the two vices of cowardice and foolhardiness.
Where cowardice is the disposition to act more fearfully than the situation deserves, and foolhardiness is the disposition to show too little fear for the situation, courage is the mean between the two: the disposition to show the amount of fear appropriate to the situation.

24. Golden Mean VICE (Excess) VICE (Defect) VIRTUE (Mean) Foolhardiness
Courage
Cowardice
Shamelessness
Modesty
Bashful
Wastefulness
Liberality
Stinginess
Vanity
Proper Pride
Undue Humility
Boastfulness
Truthfulness
Sarcasm
Promiscuity
Monogamy
Celibacy
Flattery
Friendliness
Surliness
Buffoonery
Wittiness
Boorishness

25. VIRTUES: You Strive for the Golden Mean
Virtue ethics is the theory that moral goods involve acquiring a virtuous character.
Virtues are either moral or intellectual.
Moral virtues involve acquiring a character through practice, by engraining habits or dispositions to act well.
Making good choices, practicing good habits, and acting well all involve good moral judgment.
Good moral judgment, good actions, and a good character ultimately make a person happy. They lead to the well-being of the soul.

26. Problems with Virtue Ethics and the Golden Mean
Although the Golden Mean approach has a certain commonsense appeal, it’s an approach that also raises serious questions.
For example, if the ideal virtue—the mean state- varies from person to person, situation to situation, how can we know for certain if we are “hitting the mark?”

27. Problems with Virtue Ethics and the Golden Mean
And in the case of conflicting opinions regarding what “hitting the mark” actually means, what standard can we use to decide?
One person’s pleasure may be another person’s self-indulgences and another person’s exaggerated self-denial.

28. Problems with Virtue Ethics and the Golden Mean
Aristotle tries to address this concern by introducing proposed criteria: “Virtue then is a state of deliberate moral purpose consisting in a mean that is relative to ourselves, the mean being determined by reason, or as a prudent man would determine it.”
But this only delays the problem: how precisely do we determine what “reason” is advising or who a “prudent man” is?

29. Problems with Virtue Ethics and the Golden Mean
Being virtuous is a difficult and complicated process, according to Aristotle.
Take some thing like generosity: what is the Golden Mean, the ideal virtuous state?
Giving the right amount” to the “right persons and the “right time” and for the “right cause.”
It’s no wonder that he ends on the cautionary note that: “It is rare and laudable and noble to do well.”

30. Another problem when applying to specific moral dilemmas
One of the perennial criticisms of virtue-based ethical systems is that such theories provide no guidance on how to resolve an ethical dilemma.
In Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, precious little is said about what we are supposed to do.

31. Another problem when applying to specific moral dilemmas
One would think that ethics should be, at least to some extent, action guiding.
Aristotle's answer seems to be: do what a good person would do. But the question arises, Who is the good person, and how will we recognize him or her?

32. Another problem when applying to specific moral dilemmas
Aristotle writes as though the right action is that intermediate, or Golden Mean, between two extremes, but it is often difficult if not impossible to determine how to apply this.
In summation, virtue ethics has problem of application: It doesn’t tell us what to do in particular instances in which we most need direction (end)