1. Statistical Sciences 9544A
Ethical Principles and Statements for Statistical Consulting

2. Ethical Theories in Western Philosophy
There are at least four major moral theories or maxims the have evolved in philosophy in the “West”:
John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism
Immanuel Kant’s formalism or duty ethics
John Locke’s rights ethics
Aristotle’s virtue ethics
Reference
G.C. Andrews and J.D. Kemper, Canadian Professional Engineering Practice and Ethics.
No theory is entirely satisfactory but they can be used as guidelines.

3. John Stuart Mill
The best choice in a moral dilemma is one that produces the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people. The duration and intensity of the benefit or pleasure (or the duration of pain to be avoided) and the number of people affected should be considered.
Some principles of application:
The benefit to oneself should not be given greater value as the same benefit for someone else.
Benefits should be calculated without regard to race, creed, sex, nationality, etc.
Equality of distribution of the benefits is preferable to an unequal distribution.

4. Example
Question:
Should an industry or company be allowed to pollute the environment, even though it causes harm to others? To what extent?
A Utilitarian solution:
It is necessary to find evaluate the harm that pollution causes and the economic benefits to be gained from the industry, and then find a balance.

5. Problems There is the temptation of self interest.
It results, for example, in the dilemma of whether one should kill a person to save ten others
related to the debate over capital punishment

6. Immanuel Kant
Each person has a duty to follow those courses of action that would be acceptable as universal principles for everyone to follow.
Maxims
an action can only be considered as ethically correct if it can be accepted or made into a universal law
a person should be treated as an end and not the means to achieve an end
each individual should act as a member of an ideal kingdom where that individual is both the ruler and subject at the same time
Results in “rules” such as:
Be honest.
Be fair.
Do not hurt others.
Keep your promises.
Obey the law.

7. Example
Maxim
never treat another person solely as a means to an end.
Example
Run a risky medical experiment without the knowledge of the participants with the aim of benefiting thousands of other people based on the results of the experiment.
Problems:
It deprives the participants of their ability to make a rational choice about participation.
It uses the participants as a means to some other end.

8. Problems
Conflicts can arise when following the universal principle might lead to harm. For example, telling a “white” lie is not acceptable even if the truth causes harm.

9. John Locke
Everyone has rights that come from their very existence as a human being.
The rights of an individual must be recognized by others, who have a duty not to infringe on these rights
The right to life and the right to maximum possible individual liberty are fundamental.
Other rights follow as a consequence.
freedom of religion
freedom of thought
freedom of peaceful assembly
security of person
equal benefit and protection before the law
enjoyment of the product of his or her own labour

10. Examples of Locke’s Theory in Action
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Article 1.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2.
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

11. Problems
It is occasionally difficult to determine when one person’s rights infringe on another person’s rights.

12. Aristotle
Aristotle proposed using the mind in accordance with virtue to live a happy life. Happiness is not physical pleasure, but harmonizing the mind with virtue. Happiness is achieved by developing virtues, or qualities of character, through deduction and reason. An act is good if it is in accordance with reason. This usually means a course of action that is the golden mean between extremes of excess and deficiency.

13. Example: Insider Trading
The act of insider trading would violate Aristotle’s virtue ethics.
Assume that integrity, trust, fairness, honesty and self-control are accepted virtues to be strived for to attain happiness.
Integrity is honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of a person’s action. Giving away insider information for personal benefits does not display integrity.
The inside trader breaks the trust between his business associates.
The actions of the inside trader are not fair. Other investors who do not have the information are at a disadvantage. The inside trader uses information entrusted to him to benefit himself and perhaps selected associates.
The inside trader is not honest with the company he works for and to whom he implicitly promised not to share inside information.
If the inside trader had self-control he would not leak inside information to others for personal gain.

14. Problems
The definition of “virtue” is occasionally vague and difficult to apply in specific cases. However the concept of seeking a golden mean between two extremes is frequently useful in ethics.

15. Questions for class discussion
Is contributing to the R Project an ethical activity?
Is copying from someone else or colluding with others to cheat on a written exam ethical?
Is working together on assignments ethical?
Is downloading copyrighted material from the Internet such as a complete textbook ethical?
A student brought a problem to DAHS and told the consultant that the data obtained by the supervisor were confidential. The consultant recognized that a faculty member in the Department may be interested in the project. What should the consultant do?
Justify your answer to each question by referring to at least one of the four philosophical approaches to ethics.

16. Further Question for Class Discussion
Read
D.B. Rubin (2002). The ethics of consulting for the tobacco industry. Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 11: 373 – 380.
Can be found at
Questions
Does Rubin’s explanation of his work follow the ethical guidelines set out by the ASA?
Which one(s) of the four ethical theories do you think apply to Rubin’s explanation of his work? And in what way?

17. Essay Read Write an essay
Ethical Guidelines for Statistical Practice published by the American Statistical Association
Code of Ethical Statistical Practice by the Statistical Society of Canada
Write an essay
Compare the ethical guidelines of the ASA and the SSC. Are they the same or different? Which one(s) of the four ethical theories do you think apply to these guidelines? Give reasons for your answers.