1. RWS 200 and the lower division writing program
We ask students to interpret, analyze, evaluate and produce written arguments because this is central to academic literacy, critical thinking, and civic life
- Lasch: “argument is the essence of education,” and “central to democratic culture”; - Norgaard: Universities are “houses of argument.” - Graff: “Argument literacy” is key to higher education.

2. RWS 200 and the lower division writing program
We want students to be able to identify claims, evaluate evidence and reasons, locate assumptions, identify argumentative moves, pose critical questions, produce sophisticated arguments, etc.
We do this not only because it’s good for your souls, critical thinking, ability to reason, deliberate, be engaged citizens, etc. But also because it’s key to professional futures – every gateway requires it.

3. Why We Fight! (4 your right to write, argue & analyze well)
These skills are central to business, law, professional life, and to academic study (including graduate school).
Students tested for these skills in the WPA, the LSAT, GMAT, and GRE – all the gateways to professional life.
Consider the LSAT…

4. Sample LSAT Question
FIND THE MAIN CLAIM Pediatrician: “Some parents have decided not to have their children receive the MMR vaccine because they fear that it may cause autism. They cite a study that found a possible link between the vaccine and the disease. However, two other much larger studies have found no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. These parents have, therefore, willfully put their own children and many others at risk of catching measles, mumps, and rubella, while failing to do anything to prevent their children from becoming autistic.” Which most accurately expresses the main claim of the pediatrician’s argument? (A) Parents should not pay attention to medical studies because they can’t understand them; instead, they should get advice from their pediatricians (B) The study that found a link between autism and the MMR vaccine was unsound because the doctor who conducted it was being paid by a group of trial lawyers who wanted him to find a connection so they could carry out a lawsuit (C) Public health needs require that parents have their kids vaccinated regardless of their fears about the procedure (D) Parents’ refusal to have their kids take the vaccine is both medically unjustified and dangerous, because the vaccine has known disease-preventing benefits and refusing it will have no effect on whether their kids become autistic (E) Despite the results of the two large studies, there is still some possibility that the MMR vaccine might cause autism.
I sometimes begin RWS100 with sample LSAT questions, have students do at start of semester, then again later, and they ace. Can use LSAT examples to intro rhetoric and argument, in first weeks. I have samples. Has led some students to consider law.

5. Analytical Writing Tasks
Present Your Views on an Issue (45 minutes, choice of 2 topics)
Analyze an Argument (30 minutes)
Each essay is scored on a 0-6 scale using holistic scoring
Two scores for each essay
GRE Website presents directions, actual topics, scoring guide, and sample essays for both the Issue and Argument tasks (
45 minutes = producing an argument, and 30 minutes analyzing an argument.

6. Argumentation/Justification
In Wolfe’s 2010 study, assignments from a broad range of disciplines were collected and examined. Results? Argumentation is valued across the curriculum. “Argument is the key word for good writing and the absence of argument constitutes the central problem in students’ written work” (Wolfe, p. 50).
Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa’s Academically Adrift, a comprehensive review of undergraduate education – argument is key.

7. Nudging students toward a rhetorical stance…
We want to move from a focus on what texts say (content) to what they do and how they do it (rhetoric). Rhetorical self consciousness = achieving a kind of double vision – of looking “at” as well as through language.
Rhetorical self consciousness – understanding what texts do - is important. Revealing the rhetorical moves that writers make, the strategies they draw on, is part of achieving academic literacy, and of acculturation into disciplinary communities. When you recognize the moves you not only understand the disciplinary conversation better, you are better equipped to join it.
Focusing on strategies and what texts do = good ways of introducing rhetoric.

8. Basic Rhetorical Strategies
How do texts position readers?
What point of view do they adopt?
How do they frame a topic - from what perspective do they invite us to view the world? Consider these chewing gum ads:

10. “A WHITER SMILE GETS YOU NOTICED EVEN IF YOU DON’T WANT TO BE”

12. Telemarketing Strategies Script
Pre-introduction: (Ask to speak to the decision-maker) Introduction: (Introduce yourself and the reason for your call) Attention Getter: (Mention the key features of the offer and qualify them for eligibility) Probing Questions: (Always ask for information that will be useful for rebuttals) Offer: (Explain the product/service and terms of commitment) Close: (ALWAYS ASK FOR THE SALE) Rebuttal (deal with objections) Sales Continuation: (Agree, use rebuttals, sell benefits, CLOSE) Up/down/cross-sell: (If there is another product of less-price this is the time to sell it.) Confirmation Close: (Review the terms of the offer to reduce buyer remorse) Final Close: (End on a positive note. Thank the customer and leave a dial free number for customer support)

13. Common expressions reveal rhetorical moves
“TO BE HONEST/FRANK/FRANKLY/TO TELL YOU THE TRUTH..”
"Parrhesia" or "sincere style.” Most common strategies:
False sincerity (sales pitch)
To establish intimacy/insider status (because we are close, I can confide in you).
To signal seriousness. To signal shift to serious topic – politeness or performance is being set aside in favor of frankness
To establish emphasis. I want to really emphasize what comes next. E.g. Obama & “look” as emphasis marker. He’ll say to audiences, “Look, the reality is…” = I’m dropping out of performance mode and speaking to you plainly and seriously.
Confess to potentially unpopular position, and manage “face” - may effect other’s opinion of you (status-threatening) (“To be honest, I voted for Ralph Nader in 2000; “To be honest, I thought Paradise Lost was a bore.” "To tell you the truth, I'm not going to make the deadline."

14. Some Texts Reveal Their Own Rhetoric
Medical Marketing: Vince Parry, “Branding a Condition”
Kotex advertisements So Obnoxious and “How Do I Feel About My Period?
Tales of Mere Existence

15. When ads used a lot of logos

16. Today’s ads often use different appeals

18. Rhetoric Is “Everywhere” & an “Everyday” Thing
When a politician tries to get you to vote for them, they are using rhetoric.
When a lawyer tries to move a jury, they are using rhetoric.
When a government produces propaganda, they are using rhetoric.
When an advertisement tries to get you to buy something, it is using rhetoric.
When the president gives a speech, he is using rhetoric.
But rhetoric can be much subtler (and quite positive) as well:
When someone writes an office memo, they are using rhetoric.
When a newspaper offers their depiction of what happened last night, they are using rhetoric.
When a scientist presents theories or results, they are using rhetoric.
When you write your mom or dad an , you are using rhetoric.
Thought itself is rhetorical - when you think, you engage in “inner argument,” or “inner persuasion” in order to reach a decision or act.

19. HEADLINES DESCRIBING MEDICAL MARIJUANA DECISION
Salon Magazine “Court rules against pot for sick people” 
New York Times: “High Court Allows Prosecution of Medical Marijuana Users”
USA Today: “MEDICAL MARIJUANA BAN UPHELD”
San Diego Union Tribune: “Court OKs Marijuana Crackdown”
L.A. Times: “Justices Give Feds Last Word on Medical Marijuana”
Christian Science Monitor: “US Court Rules Against Pot For Sick People”
Christian News Source: “Medical Marijuana Laws Don't Shield Users From Prosecution”

20. Everyday words, names, definitions, categories – how they are selected or constructed = rhetorical. Consider:
Cash advance (vs. high interest loan)
Second Mortgage vs. Home equity loan
“War on terror,” vs. “war against Islamic extremists,” vs. “fight against Al Queda” (scope, agents involved, action)
“The 1%,” “job creators”
Military contractors, mercenaries
“Plantation” versus “Slave labor camp”
“War on drugs”’ “Axis of Evil”;
“Body bags” vs. “transfer tubes”
“Doctor assisted suicide” vs. “death with dignity”
“Defense of marriage” vs. “marriage equality”
“French Fries/Freedom fries”
“Death Tax/Estate Tax”
“Habit forming” vs. “addictive”
“Erectile dysfunction” vs. “impotence”
“Halitosis” vs. “bad breath”
“Male pattern baldness” vs. “losing your hair”
“Viagra!”

21. RWS100 and RWS200
RWS 100: Rhetorical analysis of argument RWS 200: Contextually-sensitive analysis, plus more attention to evaluation of strengths and weaknesses.

22. RWS200 Rhetorical situation
Rhetorical analysis: what texts say, how they work, and what they do.
PACES – a broad framework for thinking about argument, esp. academic argument. We will use this as a lens for analyzing texts, but go into more depth.
Analysis of argument’s context and evaluation of strengths and weaknesses

23. Assignment Sequence
Construct an account of an argument, identify elements of context embedded in it, and evaluate the text’s strengths and weaknesses (relative to audience/context) (Haydar/Abu-Lughod)
“Lens” assignment - use concepts and arguments from one text as a context for understanding and writing about another (LaPierre/Demagoguery)
Map (or synthesize) major points of similarity, difference, contrast and connection between texts that address an issue. (Digital citizenship and civility)
Synthesize and evaluate texts in order to “enter the conversation” and advance your own claims. (Digital citizenship and civility)

24. PACES (project, argument, claims, evidence, strategies)
Identifying claims – a good rule of thumb is to look for the following cues:
- question/answer pattern
- problem/solution pattern
- self-identification (“my point here is that…”)
- emphasis/repetition (“it must be stressed that…”)
- approval (“Olson makes some important and long overdue amendments to work on …”)
- metalanguage that explicitly uses the language of argument (“My argument consists of three main claims. First, that…”)
Next we focus on identifying the project, argument, claims, evidence and strategies.
We provide students with tips and guidelines –verbs to look for, patterns that may indicate
that an author is presenting a claim, providing evidence or using a strategy.
In this example, there are some patterns that may indicate a claim is being made.
We provide a guide called an argument map – which is meant to help students
Get a sense of the architecture of the argument.