1. Unit 4 : Theory and Methods
MARXISM
Unit 4 : Theory and Methods

2. AIMS
To gain a knowledge and understanding of Marx’s main concepts of ideas and concepts (AO1)
To understand the differences between Critical and Structuralist Marxism (AO1)
To evaluate the strengths and limitations of the key Marxist theorists (AO3)

3. Re-capping
Working Independently, aim to recall as many key words as possible associated with Marxism

4. Key Differences to Functionalism
 Key Similarity to Functionalism
Marxism shares the view that society is a structure that dictates or shapes behaviour
Key Differences to Functionalism
Marxists reject the view that the social structure is a harmonious one based on value consensus and instead see it as a conflict of economic interests between social classes of unequal power and wealth
They reject the Functionalist’s view of stability and that change is gradual. Marxists suggest that there is the possibility of sudden, profound and revolutionary change. Stability is merely the result of the dominant class being able to impose their will on society

5. Marx’s Ideas
Like Durkheim, Marx argued that it is possible to understand society scientifically and that this knowledge would lead to a better society, indeed he described his theory as scientific socialism
Unlike the Functionalists he saw the potential for historical change. Moving from the human misery caused by capitalism to a classless communist society, in which all humans could fulfil their potential. Such an ideal formed the basis of Communism

6. Historical Materialism
Materialism is the view that humans are beings with material needs, such as clothing, food and shelter. In doing so they use the forces of production (sometimes called the means of production).
Marx argues that in working to meet their needs, humans co-operate with one another, and enter into the social relations of production. (ways of organising production). These can change over time.
Marx refers to the forces (means) of production plus the relations of production as the
MODE OF PRODUCTION
Historical materialism refers to the belief that society has moved through a number of types of modes of production

7. Re-capping
The economic base of society forms the infrastructure, and the superstructure arises from this base
What does the infrastructure and the superstructure look like in a society where there is the capitalist mode of production?
INFRASTRUCTURE
SUPERSTRUCTURE

8. Class and Exploitation
As the forces of production grow
different types of class societies come and go
Ancient Society – based
on the exploitation of slaves
Feudal Society - based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to the land
Capitalist Society – based on the exploitation of free wage labourers
Early in Human History, there were no classes, everyone worked and shared a primitive
Communism
Further clarification

9. Capitalism For Marx, capitalism is based on the division between:
For Marx, capitalism is based on the division between:
the bourgeoisie – who own the means of production
and the proletariat- who do not own the means of production and have to sell their labour power in return for wages
This is not an equal exchange, as the proletariat do not own the
value of the goods they produce.
Through competition between the bourgeoisie themselves the
means of production becomes concentrated in the hands of fewer and fewer companies – formulating transnational corporations
Capitalism

10. Did you know that Pepsi own –
Tropicana, Doritos, 7UP, Lipton Tea, Walkers Crisps, Costa Coffee…….. and more
Competition forces capitalists to pay the lowest wages possible.
Capitalism continually advances the forges of production but at the time technological change deskills the workforce

11. Class Consciousness
Marx argued that by polarising (division into two sharply contrasting groups or sets of opinions or beliefs) the classes, capitalism sows the seeds of its own destruction. This occurs through the process of divide and rule. Consider the news article below and explains how this concept can be applied to workers in the US
ACTIVITY
Read the news item from Amy Alexander and working together consider:
How the divide and conquer approach seemingly referred to in the news item been actioned in the US?
In what way Alexander’s article be linked to the notion of false class consciousness?

12. In 1983, a fifth of all American workers belonged to unions, but by 2014, the rate had declined to 11.1 percent. Thus, a divide-and-conquer approach has been used by some conservative politicians also attacks the two institutions best positioned to aid all American workers in achieving improved economic prospects: Government social and economic-development programs, and unions that foster collective bargaining for workers contending with increasingly powerful corporations.
For Marx, if the proletariat are to overthrow capitalism, they must move from being a class in itself (one whose members occupy the same social position) to becoming a class for itself (whose members are class conscious

13. Ideology
According to Marx, the class that owns the means of production (the bourgeoisie) also owns the means of mental production.
To do this social institutions are expected to produce ideologies that justify and legitimate the existing social order
Re-capping – How did Marx’s work on religion demonstrate the view that social institutions promote and spread capitalist ideas and beliefs. In doing so draw on examples taken from Christianity

14. The State Revolution and Communism
Alienation
Marx coined the term alienation to explain how individuals have lost control over their labour, and its products.
This is particularly evident in the division of labour where the worker is reduced to an unskilled labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task.
The State Revolution and Communism
Any class that wishes to lead a revolution must overthrow the ruling group; yet they control agencies such as the police, courts and army.
For Marx, the proletarian revolution would be to overthrow capitalism.
He predicted the ultimate victory of the proletarian and establishment of communist society on a world scale.

15. EVALUATION of Marx
Working together attempt to identify four key criticisms
of Marx’s work
ONE
Prompt – the two class model?
TWO - Prompt – Change in the size of the Social Structure?
THREE -Prompt – Feminism?
FOUR–Prompt - Is behaviour determined?
FIVE – Prompt - Do the ruling group have to own the means of production?
SIX- Prompt – Revolutionary Success?

16. The Two Marxisms
Since Marx’s death in 1883, the absence of revolutions has led many Marxists to reject economic determinism, and tried to explain why capitalism has persisted and why it might be overthrown. Two views have emerged:
Critical Marxism – some similarities with Interpretivism and Social Action theories
Structuralist Marxism – similarities with structural theories and Positivism

17. Critical Marxism and Antonio Gramsci
Gramsci was the first leader of the Italian Communist
party
He introduced the concept of hegemony, or moral ideological leadership in society.
Gramsci did not see economic determinism as an explanation of change, the transition from capitalism to communism will never come about as a result of economic forces
Whilst factors like unemployment and low wages may create a pre-condition for revolution, ideas play a central role in whether this will happen

18. Gramsci argues that the ruling class maintain its dominance over society in two ways –
Coercion: using the army, police and courts of the capitalist state to force other classes to accept its rule
Consent (hegemony): it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate
In Gramsci’s eyes, the ruling-class rely heavily on consent to maintain their rule, partly because they control the institutions that produce and spread ideas.
There is always the possibility that ruling-class hegemony can be undermined, the ruling-class are the minority and because of poverty the proletariat see some of their exploitation (LINK – Willis and the ‘lads’)
Hence the ruling-class must make ideological compromises to take account of the interests of their allies.

19. In Gramsci’s view, the only way that the working-class can win
this battle is by producing their own organic intellectuals (conscious workers who could formulate a revolutionary political party)
Re-capping – how does this link to work on religion and social change?
Evaluation of Gramsci
Gramsci is accused of over-emphasizing the role of ideas and under-emphasizing the role of state coercion and economic factors i.e. the proletariat see themselves as having no choice.
Given that later Marxists like Willis recognize that the working- class are aware of their fate, there is a link to Interactionism, as they emphasize the role of ideas and meanings as a basis for action. This is sometimes called Neo-Marxism – the new Marxists.

20. Structuralist Marxism and Althusser
Whilst Critical Marxists see people as creative beings, Structuralists argue that Social Structures really do shape history, and these are the subject of scientific enquiry.
Louis Althusser was an important Structuralist thinker who was a leading intellectual in the French Communist Party
Althusser rejects Marx’s work on economic determinism, and the idea that there is a superstructure and infrastructure.
This suggests that if the infrastructure is based on capitalism, the superstructure (institutions like the workplace and education system) will reflect capitalism. This is a one way causality.

21. The Political Level – comprising of all forms of organisation
Instead Althusser adopts a model of structural determinism, where he sees three levels
Unlike Marx’s model, the political and ideological levels have relative autonomy or partial independence from the economic level, so it will have a two-way causality
The Economic Level – all activities that involve producing something to satisfy a need
The Political Level – comprising of all forms of organisation
The Ideological Level – the way people see themselves .

22. The Repressive and Ideological State Apparatus
Althusser suggests that the political and ideological levels provide the necessary functions, socializing future workers e.g. workers who rebel must be punished Recapping……….
Repressive State Apparatus
Ideological State Apparatus
Which institutions are involved?
What is the purpose of these institutions?
This is similar to Gramsci’s distinction between coercion (RSA) and consent (ISA) as different ways of securing the dominance of the bourgeoisie.

23. Althusser’s Criticisms of Critical Marxism
Althusser thinks that creativity and free will is an illusion, and everything is about the underlying structures in society (people are merely puppets with a hidden puppet master)
He sees the belief in free will as false class consciousness – a product of the ISA. E.g. is meritocracy a myth?
Althusser suggests that socialism will not come about because of a change in consciousness but will come about as a result of a crisis in capitalism – i.e. over-determinism, where the contradictions in the three structures will occur because they become relatively independent from one another.

24. Evaluation of Althusser
Althusser rejects the notion of economic determinism and Critical Marxism yet he replaces it with structural determinism (relationships are determined by the three structures)
The historian E.P.Thompson criticises Althusser for ignoring the fact that active struggles of the working-class can change society.
Craib sees Althusser as providing as the most sophisticated conception of the social structure in the social sciences. However ,while Althusser thought that he was creating a scientific analysis of society to create progress, it can be argued that his work has had most impact on the work of PostModernists who reject the view that scientific knowledge can help improve society.

25. General Theoretical Evaluations of the Marxist Perspective
Identify the key criticisms referring to the following theories:
Functionalism
Feminism
PostModernism

26. Plan an answer to the Specimen Question
CONSOLIDATE
Plan an answer to the Specimen Question
Applying material from Item C and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of Marxist approaches in understanding society. [20 marks]
Concepts and issues such as the following may appear: historical materialism; class society; classless society; class conflict; class consciousness; false consciousness; exploitation; alienation; ideology; base/superstructure distinction; capitalism; communism; economic determinism; hegemony; ideological state apparatus; repressive state apparatus; differences between branches of Marxism; structural versus humanist Marxism; neo-Marxism
Consider what would be useful about the Marxists view as well as criticisms from internal Marxism and other theories.