1. Introduction In this presentation I will:
Discuss the different kinds of theory commonly encountered in our field.
Suggest some ways in which classic and contemporary career development theories can be used in the interview to improve reflective practice.
Invite you to participate in the process of constructing interviews.

2. In developing this slideshow, I recognise that there are debates in our field (e.g. counselling versus coaching), and further recognise that there are many different terms used in our work such as models of guidance, coaching models, theories of counselling, theories of occupational choice and so on. This proliferation of terms is potentially confusing, particularly as there is considerable overlap between them. I find it helpful to distinguish between explanatory and aspirational interpretations about career development.

3. For example, it seems to me that many of the contributors to our field implicitly or explicitly synthesise (blend) two kinds of interpretations:
1/ interpretations that explain career development;
2/ interpretations concerning desired career development behaviours for people and their helpers.
Let’s look at two examples of this synthesising approach.

4. 1/ Life Coaching
Richard Nelson-Jones’ career development theory is a synthesis of interpretations about the power of cognitive-behaviouristic and humanistic theories to explain career development and suggest what people should aspire to do as a result (Nelson-Jones: 4).
2/ Counselling Approach to Career Guidance
Lynda Ali and Barbara Graham’s career development theory is a synthesis of interpretations about the power of life stage development and person-centred theories (and others) to explain career development and suggest what people should aspire to do as a result (Ali and Graham: 26-43).

5. Some contributors concentrate more on the second type of interpretation than the first. This can mean that the relationship between the two is unclear, for example, the precise influence of the cited career development theorists is not always clear in the construction of the Ali & Graham and Nelson-Jones interview frameworks.
Nonetheless, these two examples illustrate that career development theories are synthetic i.e. they are constructed (synthesised) from a range of other theories (interpretations).
There is an opportunity to improve on these and other approaches by making the connection between theory and practice clearer, and in turn developing one’s own distinctive interviewing style. It is to this that we will now turn.

6. I would now like to explore this process of synthesis in practical terms.
During the next slides, I am going to select from a range of classic and contemporary career development theories. I am then going to propose an interview action (such as a client question) informed by that theory.
My intention here is not to be prescriptive about the range of career development theorists that can be used nor about the content of questions that can be asked. Rather, my intention is to model the process of using career development theories to generate actions in the interview itself.
I am then going to invite you to select a career development theory and propose some interview actions.

7. Here, I am not suggesting that theory should be understood in a dry or abstruse way. I am making a clear invitation to use career development theories in the interview itself to……… listen more sensitively question more perceptively and speak more thoughtfully This can be seen as a form of reflective and creative practice i.e. surfacing the explicit and often tacit (unspoken) theories that underpin our practices and creating new ones.

8. Moving to reflective and creative practice…..
Let’s look at some examples now. In the slides that follow I have used coloured tables for the broad topics of: beginnings (green), middle stages (blue) and endings (turquoise). These topics are applicable to most career coaching, advisory or counselling contexts.
The column on the left refers to an aspect of a career development theory.
In the column on the right, I propose an example of how that theory could be used in the interview, for instance, to create a self-question or a question to the client.
You are invited to move slowly through each slide, and pause after each section to create your own examples.

9. Beginnings Career development theory Example
Donald Super states that exploration, specification and implementation are important tasks in career exploration
Client question: We can talk about any subject you like today. In order to help you with this, some people want to speak about not knowing what to do, others the choice between options, and others know what they want to do and want to talk about getting there. Do any of these sound useful to you?
He states that it may be important to engage in crystallisation of values before specifying an occupational preference or implementing a choice through job hunting.
Self-question: has my client moved too quickly to the specification or implementation tasks (or vice versa)?
Self-question: could a contract be agreed to also include exploration and clarification of values?

10. Beginnings Career development theory Example
John Krumboltz states that learning is a key element in career development
Self-question: how can I agree a contract that enables us to see the interview as a learning experience?
Self-question: what learning outcomes could I agree with my client?
He also states that it is important to understand prior career-related learning
Client question: you say that you want to succeed at interview but that you do not like to brag. Could we talk about that today?

11. Beginnings Career development theory Example
Larry Cochran and Mark Savickas state that it is important to discuss the narratives or stories that we tell about ourselves and others.
Client question: in order to help you, I would find it helpful to learn more about you. Would it be OK if I asked you to tell me more about your story so far?
Savickas discusses the importance of articulating life themes and preoccupations.
For example:
Occupation: ‘I will become a vocational psychologist’
Life theme: ‘So that I can help others choose careers’
Preoccupation: ‘And in the process, I may help to resolve my own difficulties with indecision’
Self-question: how can I agree an interview structure whereby my client could articulate her life themes and preoccupations?
Client question: would it be helpful for us to talk about your reasons for wanting to help others?

12. Beginnings Following these examples, I invite you to:
1/ select a theory of career development,
2/ and create an interview action based on this.
Career development theory
Example

13. Middle stages Career development theory Example
Super states that there are three exploratory tasks that may be important in career development: crystallising, specifying and implementing.
Self-question: at what point, in terms of crystallising, specifying or implementing, does my client appear to be?
Crystallisation involves identifying and exploring work-related values.
Client question: you say that you have no specific ideas about what jobs you would like to do. Would you like to discuss your feelings or beliefs about work?
Specification involves stating a preference for a particular occupation and this may involve consideration of work experience.
Client question: would it be helpful for us to review your work experiences thus far?

14. Middle stages Career development theory Example
Super states that specification may involve trialling, role-play or experimentation.
Client question: how do you see yourself in the role of marketeer?
Implementation may involve: making plans; deciding between potential employers; networking; and writing job applications.
Client question: which employers are you considering applying to?
Self-question: how much does my client know about job hunting tasks?
The process of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance and disengagement can be applied to all roles not just the worker role.
Self-question: my client has mentioned how much she enjoys being a student. I wonder how she feels about the prospect of disengaging from that role?

15. Middle stages Career development theory Example
Both Cochran and Savickas emphasise the importance of narrative in career development.
Self-questions:
What stories does my client tell of his life?
Are there any incomplete stories?
Are there any untold stories?
Are there any role models evident in his life history?
What is pre-occupying his thoughts and feelings, and how does this occupy his time?
From different perspectives, both Ken Roberts and Sunny Hansen, stress the importance of valuing pluralism, inclusivity and diversity.
Self-question: what assumptions am I making about career development as a result of my own socio-economic class, gender, ethnicity, disability, nationality or religion?
Client question: what does work mean to you?

16. Middle stages Career development theory Example
Super identifies life roles that are significant in career development, for example: worker, student, leisurite, citizen, worshipper or homemaker.
Self-question: which roles are important in my client’s life?
Client question: what do you value about the role of nightline volunteer?
Self-question: does the client’s response ‘I like providing support’ suggest an area worth following up in terms of future worker role?
John Holland states that jobs can be grouped in types such as: realistic, social, investigative, artistic, enterprising and conventional.
Self-question: how do my client’s job ideas ‘fit’ with Holland’s six types?
Client question: you mention the role of teacher. Are there any other jobs working with people that interest you?

17. Middle stages Career development theory Example
Krumboltz highlights the importance of our self-observation generalisations in career development
Client question: you state that you don’t think you’re bright enough for postgraduate study. Can you tell me where that comes from?
Krumboltz also highlights the importance of our world-view generalisations.
Client question: I am hearing you say that HR work is all about pen pushing. Where did you learn this?
Super claims that the task of consolidation comes after stabilisation in the establishment stage. This can involve becoming known as dependable and competent by others.
Self-question: my client is talking about how she now feels stabilised in her role but is seeking to develop further. What options does her work environment offer for raising profile with others?

18. Middle stages Following these examples, I invite you to:
1/ select a theory of career development,
2/ and create an interview action based on this.
Career development theory
Example

19. Endings Career development theory Example
Lynda Ali and Barbara Graham state that moving into action planning requires re-contracting.
Client question: we seem to have now explored the initial topics we agreed to discuss. I am wondering if it would be a good idea to talk about next steps, in the time we have available?
They suggest that it is appropriate to invite the client to identify next steps.
Client question: earlier, you identified a need to find out more about accountancy. How could you go about this?
Richard Nelson-Jones states that it is important to develop skills in self-help and helping others.
Self-question: is it more helpful at this point to give information to my client or explain to him where to find it himself?

20. Endings Career development theory Example
Bill Law states that expectations, feedback, support, modelling and information are important in community interaction.
Client question: how did you get involved in the student magazine?
Client: ‘I first got involved because one of the committee members, John, encouraged me’.
Client question: how do the other volunteers see you?
Client: ‘My friends at the Union say I’m a good writer’.
Client question: who could help you take this further?
Client: ‘I could contact the local newspaper for a summer placement’.

21. Endings Career development theory Example
Super states that the implementation stage may involve making plans, deciding between potential employers, networking or writing job applications.
Client question: we’ve explored a number of areas in depth. Would it be helpful to move on to identifying future actions?
Client question: who would it be useful to contact to progress your job ideas?
The specification stage may involve trialling, volunteering, experimentation or role-play.
Client question: how would you feel about arranging some work shadowing or voluntary work?

22. Endings Career development theory Example
Cochran states that stories can provide us with an ideal to strive toward. It could be a fictional character, historical figure, cartoon character or indeed an animal.
Self-question: what kind of next steps are indicated by my client’s role model?
He writes that stories can involve ‘positing’ (taking action) and ‘completing’ (bringing closure to the story).
Client question: on your work placement, you say you feel like ‘the new kid on the block’. What actions could you take to feel more accepted there?

23. Endings Career development theory Example
Krumboltz states that it is more important to be empowered to take action than be given a diagnosis.
Client question: what do you need to learn in order to assist with your future career development?
He states there can be an overemphasis on decidedness in the action planning phase, as opposed to remaining open to experience and becoming more comfortable with undecidedness.
Client question: you state that you are ‘learning to keep an open mind about future possibilities’. So how will you respond when friends pressurise you?

24. Endings Following these examples, I invite you to:
1/ select a theory of career development,
2/ and create an interview action based on this.
Career development theory
Example

25. Summary
In this presentation, we have drawn selectively from a range of career development theories to create interview actions. In order to take this work further, it is helpful to read the Career Development Theories module material, and Sharf’s (2006) guide to applying career development theory to counselling (see next slide). I encourage you to continue synthesising your own approach….your own theory of career development……. Following the exercises above, I invite you to post at least one suggested interview action to the module forum. I can also be contacted directly about any aspect of this presentation.

26. Further reading
Ali, L. and Graham, B. (1996). The Counselling Approach to Careers Guidance. London: Routledge.
Career Studies Unit (2010). Career Development Theories: Integrating Theory and Practice Module Materials. Warwick: University of Warwick.
Nelson-Jones, R. (2007). Life Coaching Skills: How to Develop Skilled Clients. London: Sage.
Sharf, R.S. (2006). Applying Career Development Theory to Counselling (4th Edition). London: Thompson Learning.

27. Many of the examples used in this presentation are taken from the Career Development Theories module in the PG Certificate, Diploma and MA in Career Education, Information and Guidance in Higher Education. Direct engagement or re-engagement with those materials is advised in order to develop a richer appreciation of classic and contemporary theories of career development.