1. Conservation of Biodiversity
Chapter 18
Conservation of Biodiversity

2. The Sixth Mass Extinction
Module 59
The Sixth Mass Extinction
Learning Objectives
After this module, you should be able to:
Explain the global decline in the genetic diversity of wild species.
Discuss the global decline in the genetic diversity of domesticated species.
Identify the patterns of global decline in species diversity.
Explain the values of ecosystems and the global declines in ecosystem function.

3. Decline in the Diversity of Wild Species
A decline in population results in a decline in genetic diversity:
High genetic diversity ensures a wider range of genotypes, which improves the probability of surviving future change in the environment.
Low genetic diversity makes species prone to inbreeding which causes the offspring to have a poor chance of survival.

4. Decline in the Diversity of Domesticated Species
Major concerns exist about declining genetic variation in the domesticated species on which humans depend.
Ag science has concentrated efforts on breeds (animals) and varieties (plants) that are most productive and most of the genetic variation is being lost.
Decreased variety leaves us vulnerable if the biotic or abiotic environment changes.
A global response has been storing seed varieties in specially designed warehouses to preserve genetic diversity.

5. Species diversity has declined around the world
Background extinction and Mass extinction
Discussed in Chapter 5
Extinction rate – the percent of species that go extinct in a given time period.
Background extinction
1/1,000,000 per year = %
Mass extinction
50 – 95% of all living things on the planet

6. Species diversity has declined around the world
Estimates of current annual extinction rate: %
100 to 1,000 times greater than the background extinction rate of %
Experts predict extinction rates will increase over the next years.
Reason = HUMANS

7. Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities
Many animals have become prematurely extinct because of human activities.
Development, habitat destructions, hunting, etc.

8. Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities
“The first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the tasty, and those with valuable parts…”
– Edward O. Wilson (biodiversity expert)

9. Species Threatened with
Premature Extinction
Threatened (vulnerable) species:
Still abundant in its natural range but is likely to become endangered in the near future.
Endangered species:
So few individual survivors that it could soon become extinct.

10. Species Threatened with
Premature Extinction
Extinct Ex.: Dodo, Passenger Pigeon
Extinct in the wild Ex.: Alagoas Curassow
Captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living natural population
Critically endangered Ex.: Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Javan Rhino
Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future
Endangered Ex.: Cheetah, Blue Whale, Snow Leopard
Vulnerable Ex.: Lion, Wolverine
Conservation Dependent Ex.: Leopard Shark, Bristlecone Fir
Would be threatened without active conservation programs.
Near Threatened Ex.: California Red-legged Frog, Silvery Woolly Monkey
Likely to qualify as threatened soon
Least Concern Ex.:Brown Rat, Rock Pigeon, Common Juniper
Species are widespread and abundant

11. Declining Species Diversity
Problems with estimating extinction rate:
Don’t have reliable data on very many of the 1.8 million species identified
New species are being discovered all the time
Time consuming and expensive
Difficult to determine when the LAST one dies
Currently classified risk of extinction:

12. Species Threatened with
Premature Extinction

13. Species Threatened with
Premature Extinction 13

14. Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Extinction
Some species have characteristics that make them more vulnerable extinction.
These characteristics make survival especially hard when environmental conditions change or when humans interfere.

15. Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Extinction
Endemic Species
Only live in one specific place (geographic location or habitat type) – not endemic to an area if they are also found somewhere else
Species can be endemic to large or small areas
Very vulnerable to extinction if only endemic to a small area, like islands

16. Ecosystem Values
Intrinsic value: Value independent of any benefit to humans. May be based on philosophical convictions or a sense of moral obligation.
Existence value – happy knowing they are around
Aesthetic value – pleasing to the eye
Bequest value – available for future generations

17. $30 TRILLION a year Ecosystem Values
Instrumental value: Worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal.
There are 5 categories of ecosystem services: 
Provisions: A good that humans can use directly – Ex. lumber, food crops, medicinal plants, natural rubber, and furs
Regulating Services: Natural ecosystems help to regulate environmental conditions. – Ex. Cycles, climate
Support Services: services that would be costly for humans to generate – Ex. Pollination of plants, pest control, etc.
Resilience: species diversity allows ecosystems to continue providing the other services – less susceptible to disturbances
Cultural Services: The beauty of nature has aesthetic benefit for which people are willing to pay – ecotourism
$30 TRILLION a year

18. The Decline of Ecosystem Services
Since species determine the services, a decline in species means an obvious decline in services.
Most global ecosystem services/functions are on the decline.
If we want to improve ecosystem functions, we need to improve the fate of the species and ecosystems that provide these services.

19. Causes of Declining Biodiversity
Module 60
Causes of Declining Biodiversity
Learning Objectives
After this module, you should be able to:
Discuss how habitat loss can lead to declines in species diversity.
Explain how the movement of exotic species affects biodiversity.
Describe how overharvesting causes declines in populations and species.
Understand how pollution reduces populations and biodiversity.
Identify how climate change affects species diversity.

20. Causes of Declining Biodiversity: Remember H.I.P.P.C.O.
H.I.P.P.C.O. – the most important causes of premature extinction:
Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population and resource use growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation

21. H.I.P.P.C.O. – HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION
Habitat loss is the GREATEST threat to biodiversity on this planet.
Deforestation
Degradation of coral reefs
Draining wetlands
Plowing grasslands
Habitat fragmentation – when a large continuous habitat is divided into smaller, scattered patches.
By roads, agriculture, urban developed, etc.
A species may decline in abundance or become extinct even without complete habitat destruction.

22. H.I.P.P.C.O. – HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION

23. H.I.P.P.C.O. – HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION
Reduction in ranges of four wildlife species, mostly due to habitat loss and overharvest.

24. H.I.P.P.C.O. – INVASIVE SPECIES
During the past several centuries, humans have frequently moved animals, plants, and pathogens around the world – either deliberately or accidentally.
Native species: Species that live in their historical range, typically where they have lived for thousands or millions of years.
Non-native or Exotic species: A species living outside its historical range. Also known as alien species.
Many nonnative species are beneficial:
Food, Medicine, Aesthetic enjoyment
However, a few can wipe out native species, disrupt ecosystems, and cause large economic losses

25. H.I.P.P.C.O. – INVASIVE SPECIES
Invasive species: A species that spreads rapidly across large areas.
Around the world, invasive exotic species pose a serious threat to biodiversity by acting as predators, pathogens, or superior competitors to native species.
Nonnative species can become a problem since they may have no natural:
Predators
Competitors
Pathogens/Diseases
Kudzu vine was introduced to the southeastern U.S. in the 1930’s to control erosion. Since then, it has taken over native species habitats.

26. H.I.P.P.C.O. – INVASIVE SPECIES
Many invasive species have been introduced intentionally…

27. H.I.P.P.C.O. – INVASIVE SPECIES
…other invasive species have been introduced unintentionally.

28. Characteristics of Invasive Species and Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invasive Species
Prevention is the best way to reduce threats from invasive species, because once they arrive it is almost impossible to slow their spread.

29. H.I.P.P.C.O. – POPULATION GROWTH
Humans have increased the species extinction rate by approximately 1,000 times.
Experts predict that these rates will continue, or accelerate, in the future.

30. H.I.P.P.C.O. – POLLUTION
Human activities can pollute the water, soil, or air on both on a local and global scale:
Water – sewage, fertilizers, toxic chemicals and oil
Soil – pesticides, waste, herbicides and toxic chemicals (which may be washed from the land into water)
Air – smoke and gases such as SO4, CO2, CH4 or other gases that can lead to climate change

31. H.I.P.P.C.O. – CLIMATE CHANGE
As climate change affects patterns of temperature and precipitation in different regions of the world, a species could:
Adapt quickly enough to respond to changing conditions.
Migrate to a place where the climate is well suited to the species niche.
Go extinct.
An estimated 25% of all land plants and animal could become extinct by the year 2100.
Many (but not all) extinctions will take place in the upper latitudes where the warming is the greatest.

32. H.I.P.P.C.O. – OVEREXPLOITATION
Overexploitation (“using” them too much) threatens some species with premature extinction.
Hunting, fishing, and other forms of harvesting are the most direct human “uses” of wild plants and animals.
Killing predators and pests that bother us or cause economic losses.
Legal and illegal trade in wildlife species used as pets or for decorative purposes.
Most species can be harvested to some degree, but a species is overharvested when individuals are removed at a rate faster than the population can replace them. 
In the extreme, overharvesting of a species can cause extinction.

33. H.I.P.P.C.O. – OVEREXPLOITATION
Some species are killed for their valuable parts or are sold live to collectors – Poaching
Rhinoceros are killed for their horns and sold illegally on the black market.
Elephants are killed for their ivory tusks
Tigers and other “cats” killed for their pelts

34. National and International Laws/Treaties Help Protect Species
The legal and illegal trade in plants and animals represents a serious threat to their ability of some species to persist in nature.
National and international laws help protect species.
Lacey Act: A U.S. law that prohibits interstate shipping of illegally harvested plants and animals
Originally signed in 1900 to focus on game animals
In 2008, the Act was amended to include plant products such as timber and paper. This was the world's first ban on trade in illegally sourced wood products.

35. National and International Laws/Treaties Help Protect Species
The 1973 Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES)
Protects wildlife against over-exploitation, and prevents international trade from threatening species with extinction.
Signed by 172 countries
Enforcement is difficult
Probably only 10% of illegal trade in the U.S. is caught
Red List: Lists hundreds of species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products.

36. The Conservation of Biodiversity
Module 61
The Conservation of Biodiversity
Learning Objectives
After this module, you should be able to:
Identify legislation that focuses on protecting single species.
Discuss conservation efforts that focus on protecting entire ecosystems.

37. National and International Laws/Treaties Help Protect Species
Marine Mammal Protection Act: A 1972 U.S. act to protect declining populations of marine mammals.
Prohibits killing of all marine mammals in the U.S. and prohibits the trade of marine mammal body parts.
Includes seals, whales, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, otters, walruses, and polar bears
Was the first act to call specifically for an ecosystem approach to conservation.
Maintain the health and stability of the marine ecosystem

38. National and International Laws/Treaties Help Protect Species
The overall goal of the 1973 U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) is to identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad.
The ESA is meant to compliment the international CITES agreement
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determines which species are listed as endangered
The endangered species list contains animals and 800+ plants

39. National and International Laws/Treaties Help Protect Species
One of the world’s most far-reaching and controversial environmental laws:
ESA makes it illegal for Americans to engage in commerce associated with, or hunt / kill / collect, endangered or threatened species.
ESA forbids federal agencies (besides defense department) to carry out or even fund projects that would jeopardize an endangered species.
ESA calls for the development of recovery plans to increase populations
The act also authorizes the government to purchase habitat that is critical to the species.

40. National and International Laws/Treaties Help Protect Species
Accomplishments:
More than half of the species listed are stable or improving
99% of all listed species are still living
Challenges:
Very small budget
Species are listed when faced with serious threat of extinction
It can take decades to bring a species’ populations up
Suggested changes to ESA:
Increase the budget
Develop recovery plans more quickly
Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat

41. Some conservation efforts focus on protecting entire ecosystems
Rather than attempting to preserve just a species, preserve the entire ecosystem in which they (and other species) live.
One of the major motivating factors in setting aside national parks and marine reserves.
Since the 1960s, there has been a large increase in the amount of land that is under various types of protection throughout the world.

42. Some conservation efforts focus on protecting entire ecosystems
Biosphere reserve: Protected area consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact.
Biosphere reserves ideally consist of core areas that have minimal human impact and outer zones that have increasing levels of human impacts.