1. Collecting Qualitative Data
Chapter 8
Collecting Qualitative Data
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

2. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Identify different approaches to selecting participants and sites
Know the levels of permissions required to gain access to participants and sites
Identify and weigh the alternative types of qualitative data you can collect
Identify the procedures for recording qualitative data
Recognize the administrative and ethical considerations involved in collecting qualitative data
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

3. Who Will Be Studied: Purposeful Sampling
Random “Quantitative” Sampling
Select representative individuals
To generalize from sample to population
To make “claims” about the population
To build/test “theories” that explain the population
Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling
Select people/sites who can best help us understand our
phenomenon
To develop detailed understanding
That might be “useful” information
That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon
That might give voice to “silenced” people
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

4. Types of Purposeful Sampling
When Does Sampling Occur?
Before Data Collection
After Data Collection
Has Started
What is the intent?
To develop
many
perspectives
What is the intent?
To describe what
is “typical” to
those unfamiliar
with the case
To describe some
subgroup in depth
To take advantage
of whatever case
unfolds
To explore
confirming or
disconfirming
cases
Maximal
Variation
Sampling
Homogenous
Sampling
Typical
Sampling
To describe a
case that illustrates “dramatically” the situation
To describe
particularly
troublesome
or enlightening
cases
Opportunistic
Sampling
Confirming/
Disconfirming
Sampling
To generate a theory
or concept
To locate people
or sites to study
Critical
Sampling
Theory or Concept
Sampling
Extreme
Case
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

5. Sample Size Small for in-depth perspective 1 individual 4 cases
20–30 interviews
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

6. Permissions That Are Needed
Gain permission from Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Gain permission from “gatekeepers” at the research site
Gatekeepers are individuals at the site who provide site access, help researcher locate people and identify places to study.
The gatekeeper may require written information about the project.
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

7. Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Permissions
Qualitative studies are usually conducted at the research site.
The researcher has personal contact with the participants through in-depth interviewing and prolonged observing.
Qualitative studies are personal in nature and are not centered on variables or measures.
Qualitative researchers use video cameras or audio recorders to record in-depth interviews for transcription.
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

8. Information for the Gatekeeper
Why their site was chosen
What time and resources are required
What will be accomplished at the site
What potential there is for your presence to be disruptive
What individuals at the site will gain from the study
How you will use and report the results
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

9. The information You Will Collect
Observations
Interviews
Documents
Audiovisual materials
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

10. Observations
An observation is the process of gathering first-hand information by observing people and places at a research site.
Observational roles
Participant observer: An observational role adopted by researchers when they take part in activities in the setting they observe
Nonparticipant observer: An observer who visits a site and records notes without becoming involved in the activities of the participants
Observational roles can be changed.
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

11. The Process of Observing
Obtain the required permissions needed to gain access to the site
Ease into the site slowly by looking around, getting a general sense of the site, and taking limited notes, at least initially
Identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe
Determine, initially, your role as an observer
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

12. The Process of Observing (cont’d)
Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best understanding of the site and the individuals
Design some means for recording notes during an observation
Descriptive field notes describe the events, activities, and people
Reflective field notes record personal reflections that relate to their insights, hunches, or broad themes that emerge
When complete, slowly withdraw from the site
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

13. Interviews Types: One-on-one, phone, e-mail, focus group
General open-ended questions that are asked allow the participant to:
Create options for responding
Voice their experiences and perspectives
Information is recorded, then transcribed for analysis.
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

14. Interview Procedures Identify the interviewees
Determine the type of interview you will use (e.g., focus group, one-on-one)
Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study
Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the interview
During the interview, audiotape the questions and responses
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

15. Interview Procedures (cont’d)
During the interview, have an interview plan using your interview protocol, but be flexible
Use probes to follow up on areas of interest
Include possible probes in your interview protocol
During the interview, design probes as you listen to what the participant is talking about
Be courteous and professional when the interview is over
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

16. Structured, Unstructured and Semi-Structured Interviews
Approach to
Data
Collection
Type of
Response
Options to
Questions
Types of
Interviews
Leading to
Data
Quantitative
Closed-
Ended
Structured/
Semi-Structured
Interviews
Scores to
Answers
Qualitative
Open-
Ended
Unstructured
Interviews
Transcription
of Words
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

17. Documents Public and private records Good source for text data
Obtain permission before using documents
Optically scan documents when possible
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

18. Audiovisual materials
Determine the material that can provide evidence to address your research questions
Determine if the material is available and obtain permission to use it
Check the accuracy and authenticity of the material if you do not record it yourself
Collect the data and organize it
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

19. Recording Data Using Protocols
Interview protocols: A form designed by the researcher that contains instructions for the process of the interview, the questions to be asked, possible probes associated with each question, and space to take notes on responses from the interviewee
Observation protocols: A form designed by the researcher before data collection that is used for taking fieldnotes during an observation
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

20. Interview Protocols
The header: Essential information about the interview
Open-ended questions
“Ice-breaker”
Questions that address major research questions
Probes that clarify and elaborate
Include space between each question for notes
Closing comments thanking the participant
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

21. Observational Protocols
In the header, record information about the time, place, setting, and your observational role
Divide the rest of the protocol into two columns:
Left column to record descriptive notes about the activities at the site
Right column to record reflective notes about themes, quotes, and personal experiences at the site
Include a sketch of the site
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition

22. Field Issues in Data Collection
Sufficient access to the site for data collection
Sufficient time for data collection
Limit initial collection to one or two observations or interviews
Time is needed to establish a substantial database
Observational role
Building rapport with participants
Obtaining permission to use documents and audiovisual materials
Ethical issues
Anonymity of participants
Convey true purpose of study without deception
John W. Creswell Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, third edition