1. Research Methodology & Research Design
Dr Shahjada Selim Assistant Professor Department of Endocrinology Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University

2. The Research Process Identification of general problem/question
Literature review
Specify questions/hypotheses
Determination of research design/methodology
Data collection
Data analysis/presentation
Interpretation of findings
Discussion of findings

3. The Theory of Research
Research Methodology

4. TO DO/ CONDUCT RESEARCH
Research methodology
The way/science
TO DO/ CONDUCT RESEARCH
systematically
&
scientifically

5. Structure of Research The "hourglass" notion of research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions

6. Deduction and Induction

7. Research Methodology
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them

8. Research methodology.. Research Methodology says the how
to do/conduct research
systematically & scientifically.
Research methodology not only provides
the knowledge of various types of methods & techniques
for Sampling , data collection, data analysis & report writing etc.
but also guides
that which particular method or technique
for sampling/data collection/data analysis should be used or not
& why should /shouldn't do so.

9. Research Methodology

10. Research Methodology
There are different ways of “knowing” and the epistemological standpoint will determine the nature of that knowing
One may explore their reality using statistical data as evidence while another may have first-hand accounts of how the person has been effected, which is their reality.
Each represents a particular Paradigm of knowledge. Neither is right or wrong it is just a different view.

11. Research Method
The Action of Research: Design; Sample; Method; Collection; How Data will be analysed

12. Three Research Approaches
Observational Research
Gathering data by observing people, actions and situations
(Exploratory)
Survey Research
Asking individuals about attitudes, preferences or behaviors
(Descriptive)
Most Widely Used Form
Experimental Research
Using groups of people to
determine cause and effect
relationships
(Causal)

13. Types of Research Designs
Gathers preliminary information to define
the problem and suggest hypotheses
Literature search, expert interviews, focus
groups, case studies, company audits,
qualitative research
Exploratory
Research
Describes things as the market potential of
a product, consumer demographics and
attitudes
Secondary data analysis, surveys, observations,
panels, simulations
Descriptive
Research
Causal
Research
Test hypotheses about cause and effect
relationships
X causes Y

14. Research Methods Descriptive research Analytical research
Applied research
Basic research
Research Methods

15. Research Methods Quantitative research Qualitative research
Conceptual research
Empirical research
Research Methods

16. The Right and the Left
Quantitative research - numbers, numbers, numbers
Qualitative research - words, words, words

17. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Assumptions about the World
Based on the notion of “constructivism”, which assumes multiple realities that are socially constructed through individual and collective perceptions or views of the same situation.
Based upon the idea of “logical positivism”, that is, there is a singular reality with stable, sociAal facts that are separate from the feelings and beliefs of individuals.

18. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Research Purpose
Seeks to establish relationships and explain causes of changes in measured variables. That is, the goal of science is to explain and predict.
Concern is with the understanding of the social phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives. This requires, to some degree, researcher participation.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Research Purpose

19. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Methods and Process
The scientific method, also known as a priori or pre-established design.
Use of emergent design utilizing constant comparison and revision.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Methods and Process

20. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Prototypical Studies
Experimental or correlational designs are used to reduce error, bias and the influence of extraneous variables--control of bias is through design.
Use of ethnography, which helps readers understand the multiple perspectives of the situation by the persons studied. Subjectivity in data analysis and interpretation is acknowledged.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Prototypical Studies

21. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Researcher Role
Detachment from study in order to avoid bias.
Immersion in situation and the phenomenon being studied.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Researcher Role

22. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Context
Context-free generalizations
Generalizations are contextually-bound.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Context

23. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Precision
Obtained through the use of measurement and statistics
Provided by detailed description of phenomenon
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Precision

24. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Verification
Results replicated by others.
Extension of understandings by others.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Verification

25. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Explanation
Traditionally, parsimonious explanations were sought, but this may be changing due to technology.
Summary through narrative--importance is placed on reducing complex realities to simple explanations.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Explanation

26. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Logical Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE--What’s the classic example?
INDUCTIVE--anyone have an example?
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Logical Reasoning

27. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Conditional Conclusions
Statements of statistical probability.
Tentative summary interpretations.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Conditional Conclusions

30. Types of Quantitative Studies
Descriptive
True experimental
Quasi-experimental
Correlational
Predictive
Types of Quantitative Studies

31. Types of Qualtitative Studies
Qualitative research gathers information that is not in numerical form:
diary accounts,
open-ended questionnaires,
unstructured interviews
unstructured observations.
Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyze than quantitative data.
Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies).
Types of Qualtitative Studies

32. Types of Qualtitative Studies
Qualitative paradigms offer the researcher an opportunity to develop an idiographic understanding of participants’ experiences and what it means to them, within their social reality, to be in a particular situation (Bryman, 1992).
methods include: Content / thematic analysis (CA/ TA); Grounded Theory (GT);
Discursive psychology / Discourse analysis (DA);
Narrative psychology (NA);
Phenomenological psychology methods such as interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA).
Types of Qualtitative Studies

34. Research Using Primary Data
Cross-sectional
Case Control
Cohort
Randomized controlled trial
Research Using Primary Data

35. Cross-sectional Study
Data gathered at one point in time
Often used for surveys
Can not make inferences about causality
Cross-sectional Study

36. Start with the outcome- identify a sample with the condition of interest
Identify a similar control group
Look back to determine exposure
Calculate the risk in the cases and controls- odds ratio used
Can not use to establish prevalence
Case Control Study

37. Cohort Study Start with an identified group
Determine exposure in everyone at the same time
Follow the group to determine who develops the outcome of interest
Can be used to determine prevalence
Association measured as relative risk (rate ratios)
Cohort Study

38. Randomized Controlled Trial
Gold standard for determining associations
Identify a group
Randomly assign individuals to exposure
Only reliable way to control for confounding
Randomized Controlled Trial

39. Research Using Secondary Data
Literature review
Systematic review
Metanalysis
Analysis of existing data collected for another purpose
Research Using Secondary Data

40. Literature Review Gather articles on a topic of interest
Summarize the findings
Literature Review

41. Gather articles using a pre-defined search strategy- may include unpublished studies
Develop a-priori objective criteria to evaluate the quality of the studies
Summarize the quality of the data and the results
Systematic Review

42. Metanalysis Do a systematic review Obtain the primary data if possible
Summarize the data quantitatively
Metanalysis

43. Research Method vs Methodology Comparison
Research Methods
Research Methodology
research methods are the methods by which you conduct research into a subject or a topic
Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys and the like
research methods aim at finding solutions to research problems
research methodology explains the methods by which you may proceed with your research
research methodology involves the learning of the various techniques that can be used in the conduct of research and in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies search
research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out solutions
Research Method vs Methodology Comparison

44. Research Method vs Methodology ComparisonExamples:-
research methods
Research methodology
If the subject for Research is ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’ then the research methods that are involved are study of various works of the different poets and the understanding of the employment of figures of speech in their works
If the subject for Research is ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’ then the research methodology pertaining to the topic mentioned above involves the study about the tools of research, collation of various manuscripts related to the topic, techniques involved in the critical edition of these manuscripts and the like
Research Method vs Methodology ComparisonExamples:-

45. Research Method vs Methodology Comparisonwith Examples cont…
research methods
Research methodology
If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic then the research methods include experiments, tests, study of various other results of different experiments performed earlier in relation to the topic or the subject and the like
If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic then research methodology pertaining to the scientific topic involves the techniques regarding how to go about conducting the research, the tools of research, advanced techniques that can be used in the conduct of the experiments and the like
Research Method vs Methodology Comparisonwith Examples cont…

46. Research Method vs Methodology Conclusion
We can say that Research Methodology has many dimensions and Research Methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
Research Method vs Methodology Conclusion

47. Variables Meaning Known as a property of proposition being studied
Also known as the constructs of a proposition
A symbol to which we assign numerals or values
Numerical value assigned to a variable is based on its properties
3 types of Variables: Dichotomous; Discrete; Continuous
Variables

48. 1. Dichotomous Variables
These variables are so called because they have TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a property.
For example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist, employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.
The dichotomous variables can be assigned with a numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.
1. Dichotomous Variables

49. 2. Discrete Variables These are categorical variables.
For example, the demographic variables race or religion are the examples of discrete variables.
Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.
The numerical values assigned to these variables will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.
2. Discrete Variables

50. These variables take on values with a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.
For example, test scores may range from , age may be 2.5 years, present income of a person could be £ , you may disclose your property worth more than £.500,000.
3. Continuous Variables

51. Variables variable… attribute…
any observation that can take on different values
attribute…
a specific value on a variable

52. Examples
Variable
Attribute
age

53. Examples
Variable
Attribute
age
18, 19, 20, etc...

54. Examples
Variable
Attribute
Gender or sex

55. Examples
Variable
Attribute
Gender or sex
Male, female

56. Examples
Variable
Attribute
satisfaction

57. Examples Variable Attribute satisfaction 1 = very satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all

58. Types of Variables independent variable (IV)… dependent variable (DV)…
what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
dependent variable (DV)…
what you presume to be influenced by the IV

59. Examples: Sports participationIV DV
health status
attitude
exercise participation
social support
intervention

60. The purpose of the study was to…
test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is effective in promoting moral development in youth
examine the relationship between age and VO2max.
test whether there are gender differences the value placed on sport participation
determine whether students’ perceptions of the amount of positive, negative, and informational feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of their self-esteem and level of achievement
IV, DV?

61. Types of Relationships
correlational vs. causal relationships
one variable causes the other variable
variables perform in a synchronized manner
correlation does not imply causation!
(it’s necessary but not sufficient)

62. Types of Relationships
patterns of relationships…
no relationship
positive relationship
negative relationship
curvilinear relationship

63. + + - - - + - + + + - - - + - + fitness fitness vocabulary resting HR
exercise intensity
performance - - - + - + HR
arousal

64. Hypotheses hypothesis… types of hypotheses
a specific statement of prediction
types of hypotheses
alternative vs. null
one-tailed vs. two-tailed

65. Hypotheses alternative hypothesis (HA)… null hypothesis (HO) …
An effect (that you predict)
null hypothesis (HO) …
Null effect

66. this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no direction is predicted
Hypotheses
hypothesis
there is a relationship between age and exercise participation HA
there is a relationship HO
there is not a relationship
this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no direction is predicted

67. this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a specific direction is predicted
Hypotheses
hypothesis
an incentive program will increase exercise participation HA
participation will increase HO
participation will not increase or will decrease
this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a specific direction is predicted

68. Sample vs. Population
Population = collection of ALL possible observations
Sample = subset of a population
Random Sample
representative of a population
all observations have equal chance of being selected

69. Why Do We Use Samples? Cost Time Inaccessibility of the population
Accuracy
Destruction of the observations
Why Do We Use Samples?

70. Steps in Developing a Sample Plan
Step 7: Execute
Operational Sampling
Plan
Step 2: Choose
Data Collection
Method
Step 3: Choose
Sampling Frames
Step 1: Define the
Population of
Interest
Step 6: Develop and
Specify Operational
Plan
Step 5: Determine
Sample Size
Step 4: Select a
Sampling Method

71. Sampling Methods Probability vs. Nonprobability Probability
members in the population have a known chance (probability) of being selected into the sample
Nonprobability
the probability of selecting members from the population is not known
Sampling Methods

72. Sampling Design Process
Define Population
Determine Sampling Frame
Determine Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Snow-ball
Determine Appropriate Sample Size
Execute Sampling Design

73. Classification of Sampling Methods
Probability
Samples
Non-
probability
Systematic
Stratified
Convenience
Snowball
Cluster
Simple
Random
Judgment
Quota

74. Once you are clear about your procedure, you need to locate participants will undergo the research procedure
Quantitative methodology is concerned with representativeness of the sample
The key question here is sample size as the bigger sample size the more precise the results
Qualitative research is less focused on sample and generalizability. Sampling tends to mean a relevant case, theory base case, a critical case, an interview et cetera
Sampling

75. Key questions to answer in your methodology
What kind of research methods are you going to use? Are they mostly:
Quantitative, or qualitative, or a mixture of both?
What do you think your methods will enable you to discover?
What might they prevent you from discovering?
What kinds of research methods would be best suited to the kind of research you are undertaking and the research questions you are pursuing?
What sort of problems do you envisage in setting up these methods?
What are their benefits?
What will you need to do to ensure they gather useful data?
Key questions to answer in your methodology

76. “Methodology” implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data.
It is necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods.
you have to show that you understand the underlying concepts of the methodology.
When you describe your methods it is necessary to state how you have addressed the research questions and/or hypotheses.
The methods should be described in enough detail for the study to be replicated, or at least repeated in a similar way in another situation.
Every stage should be explained and justified with clear reasons for the choice of your particular methods and materials.
Summary