1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

2. QUALITATIVE PARADIGM Naturalistic paradigm Soft science
Focus: usually broad
Holistic
Subjective
Reasoning: dialectic, inductive
Basis of knowing: meaning, discovery
Shared interpretation
Communication and observation
Basic element of analysis: words
Individual interpretations
Uniqueness

3. The “Logic” of Qualitative Research
Based on holistic view & following beliefs:
There is no single reality – reality is based on perceptions – it is different for each person – changes over time
What we know has meaning only within a given situation or context
The reasoning process in qualitative research involves:
- perceptually putting pieces together to make wholes

4. What is the concept of “Gestalt”?
This concept is closely related to “wholism” and proposes that a particular phenomenon is organized into a cluster of linked ideas, “a gestalt”.
Disadvantage:
understand a phenomenon through the interpretation of a particular theory

5. Experiencing “Gestalt Change”
First to deconstruct your original sedimented views
Reconstruct another view
Focus on a different view point or looking at something differently (a different lens)
To increase openness

6. Philosophy and Qualitative Research
Frameworks are not used the same as in quantitative
The goal is not theory testing
Each study should be guided by a particular philosophical stance
Philosophical Stance assists to:
directs the question(s) that are asked
the observations which are made
the interpretation of data

7. DESIGN OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
Specify design before data collection
Adhere to the design after study started
Study design evolves over time
Researcher Decisions include:
How to obtain
From whom to collect
How to schedule
How long

8. Design of Qualitative Research
EMERGENT DESIGN
A design that emerges as the researcher makes ongoing decisions reflecting what has already been learned
Lincoln & Cuba (1985) – not researcher laziness or sloppiness – but rather desire to base inquiry on realities and viewpoints of those under study
Key: realities and viewpoints that are NOT KNOWN or UNDERSTOOD AT THE OUTSET

9. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design
Flexible, elastic, capable of adjusting
Merging together of various data collection strategies
Holistic, understand the whole
Research intensely involved
Research to become the research instrument
Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies and to determine when field work is done
What is “Bricolage?”

10. Qualitative Designs PHASES of a Qualitative Study:
Orientation an overview
Focused exploration
Confirmation and closure
(Lincoln & Cuba, 1985)

11. Qualitative Design Features
Control over the independent variable
Type of group comparisons
Number of data collection points
Occurrence of the independent & dependent variables

12. Qualitative Research Traditions
Four traditions described by nurse researcher:
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded Theory
Historical Research

13. ETHNOGRAPHY Research tradition in anthropology
Provides a framework for studying meanings, patterns, and experiences defined by a cultural group in a holistic fashion
Ethnoscience (Cognitive Anthropology): focuses on the cognitive world of a culture – semantic rules and shared meanings that shape behavoir

14. ETHNOGRAPHY Focus: the culture of a group of people
Assumption: every human group evolves a culture that guides members view of the world and the way they structure their experiences
At times referred to as “macroethnography: - able to study broadly defined cultures
At times referred to as “microethnography” – able to study cultures using a very narrow focus

15. Ethnography Cont’d
Aim: to learn from rather than study members of a cultural group
Two perspectives:
Emic – insider’s view, the way the members of a culture envision their world
Etic - outsiders’ interpretation of the experiences of that culture – strive to get at cultural experiences that members do not talk about or may not even be consciously aware

16. Ethnography Cont’d Extensive field work Typically labor intensive
Time consuming
Researcher as instrument - to study a culture it requires a certain level of intimacy – needs to be developed – become one within the culture

17. Ethnography Cont’d Three types of information: Cultural behavoir
Cultural artifacts
Cultural speech
Sources of information – in-depth interviews, records, charts, observations and other types of physical evidence are used

18. Ethnography Cont’d Products of this research includes:
rich and holistic descriptions
describe normative behavoir and social patterns
Information about health beliefs and health practices
Facilitates an understanding of behavoirs affecting health and illness
Leininger coined the phrase:
“ethnonursing research” –the study and analysis of local or indigneous people’s viewpoints, beliefs and practices about nursing care behavoir and processes of designated cultures

19. Phenomenology Phenomenology is both philosophy and a research method
Purpose of this research method is to describe experiences as they are lived – to capture the
“lived experience”
Developed by Husserl & Heidegger – an approach to thinking about people’s life experiences.

20. Phenomenology Cont’d Philosophical Orientation
view the person as integral with the environment
World is shaped by the self and also shapes the self
The person is a self within a body
Person is referred to as “embodied” – our bodies provide the possibility for the concrete actions of self in the world
The body, the world and the concerns, unique to each person, are the “context” within which that person can be understood
“being in time”

21. Phenomenology Cont’d A phenomenological researcher asks the question:
“What is the essence of this phenomena as experienced by these people and what does it mean?”
Assumption: there is an “essence”
an essential variant structure
Investigates subjective phenomena
Belief that truths about reality are grounded in peoples’ lived experiences

22. Phenomenology Cont’d Two Schools of Thought: Descriptive phenomenology
Interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics)

23. Phenomenology Cont’d Four aspects of the lived experience: SPATIALITY
CORPOREALITY
TEMPORALITY
RELATIONALITY

24. Phenomenology Cont’d
Phenomenologists believe – human existence is “meaningful” and “interesting”
“Being in the world” or “Embodiment” is a concept that acknowledges people’s physical ties to their world
People:
THINK
SEE
HEAR
FEEL
CONCIOUS OF THEIR BODIES INTERACTION WITH THE WORLD

25. Phenomenology Cont’d Data sources: In-depth conversations
Researcher helps the participant to describe lived experiences without leading the discussion
Two or more interviews/conversations are needed
Usually small number of participants (ie. 10 or less)
May use participation, observation and introspective reflection

26. Phenomenology Cont’d Methodological Interpretations Used: BRACKETING
INTUITING

27. Grounded Theory
Is an inductive research technique developed for health-related topics by Glaser & Strauss (1967)
Emerged from the discipline of sociology
“Grounded” – means the theory developed from the research is grounded or has it roots in the data from which is was derived

28. Grounded Theory Cont’d
Philosophical Orientation:
Based on symbolic interaction theory
Explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions
Meaning is expressed through – symbols – such as words, religious objects, and clothing
Symbolic meanings are different for each of us
In social life - meanings are shared by groups – socialization process
Group life is based on consensus and shared meanings

29. Grounded Theory Cont’d
Is an approach to study the social processes and social structures
Focus: is the evolution of a social experience – the social and psychological stages that characterize a particular event of process

30. Grounded Theory Cont’d
Methodology:
does not begin with a focused research question
the question emerges from the data
fundamental structure feature –
is the “data collection”
is the “data analysis”
Is the sampling of participants occurs simultaneously
This procedure is referred to as “constant comparison”

31. Grounded Theory Cont’d
Constant Comparison: is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories and to identify the basic problem
Categories that are elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that “commonalities” and “variations” can be determined
Categories can be “condensed” and “collapsed”

32. Grounded Theory Cont’d
Data Sources:
in-depth interviews are most common
Observational methods
Existing documents
Usually a sample of 25 to 50 informants
Has contributed to the development of middle range nursing theories

33. Historical Research Historiography examines events of the past
Historians believe the greatest value of historical knowledge is an increased self-understanding
Philosophical Orientation:
A very old science
Primary question “Where have we come from, who are we, and where are we going?”
Myths, past, present and future are not distinguishable
Myths are a form of story telling

34. Historical Research Cont’d
History moves beyond the myth
Chronicling events, deeds, victories and stories about people and civilizations
Comparing histories, identifying patterns
Aim:
to discovery new knowledge
Seeking to answer questions concerning causes, effects and trends relating to past events
To shed light on present behaviors and practices

35. Historical Research Cont’d
Assumptions:
There is nothing new under the sun
One can learn from the past

36. Sampling in Qualitative Research
Usually small, non-random samples
Concern: measure attributes and relationships in a pop’n
Need a representative sample
Aim: to discover meaning, uncover multiple realities, therefore generalization is not a guiding criteria

37. Sampling in Qualitative Research
Types of sampling:
Convenience sampling
Snowball sampling
Theoretical sampling
Purposeful sampling – several strategies – maximum variation sampling, extreme/deviant case sampling, and typical case sampling
Simple random

38. Sample Size No firm establishment of criteria or rules
Should be determined on the basis of informational needs
Is largely a function of:
the purpose of the inquiry
the quality of the informants
The type of sampling strategy used

39. Sample Size Guiding Principle is that of,
DATA SATURATION: sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved

40. Critiquing the Sampling Plan
Evaluate the sample plan based on the following:
Terms of its adequacy
Terms of its appropriateness
Adequacy means –
Appropriateness means -

41. Assessment of Qualitative Data
Need to address validity and reliability
Do the measures used by the researcher yield data reflecting the truth?
Lincolon & Cuba (1985) – four criteria:
Credibility
Dependability
Confirmability
Transferability
(criteria for establishing “trustworthiness”)

42. Assessment of Qualitative Data
Credibility – refers to confidence in the truth of the data
Prolonged engagement
Persistent observation
Triangulation
External checks – peer debriefing & member checks
Researcher credibility

43. Assessment of Qualitative Data
Dependability – refers to data stability over time and over conditions
Steps to approach:
Stepwise replication
Inquiry audit

44. Assessment of Qualitative Data
Confirmability –refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data – what does that mean?
AUDIT TRAIL:
Transferability – refers to the extent to which the findings from the data can be transferred to other settings or groups = similar to the concept of generalizability
THICK DESCRIPTION: