1. Chapter 7 The Trait Approach: Theory and Application

2. Type theories: the precursors of trait theories
The four temperament types: Galen, Hippocrates
The three somatotypes: Kretschmer, Sheldon

3. The four temperament types, according to the ancient Greeks
Sanguine corresponds to the fluid of blood. A person who is sanguine is generally optimistic, cheerful, even-tempered, confident, popular, and fun-loving.
Choleric corresponds to the fluid of yellow bile. A person who is choleric is a doer and a leader. Many great charismatic, military and political figures were cholerics. On the negative side, they are easily angered or bad tempered.
Melancholic corresponds to the fluid of black bile. A person who is a thoughtful ponderer has a melancholic disposition. Often kind and considerate, melancholics can be highly creative—as in poets and artists—but can also be obsessed with the tragedy and cruelty in the world, leading them to become depressed.
Phlegmatic corresponds to the fluid of phlegm. A phlegmatic person is calm and unemotional. Although phlegmatics are generally self-content and kind, their low-key personality can often inhibit enthusiasm in others and make phlegmatics themselves lazy and resistant to change.

5. Type theories: the precursors of trait theories
The four temperament types: Galen, Hippocrates
The three somatotypes: Kretschmer, Sheldon

6. The three prototypic somatotypes: ectomorphs, endomorphs, and mesomorphs

7. Personality as trait dimensions
Trait: a dimension of personality used to characterize people according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic.
Assumption 1: personality characteristics are relatively stable over time.
Assumption 2: personality characteristics are relatively stable across situations.
Important question: To what extent does nature (our genetic makeup) or nurture (our experience and learning history) contribute to a given trait?

8. An example of a trait continuum

9. Traits are hierarchically structured (trait, patterns of behavior, specific surface behaviors)

10. Gordon Allport ( )
Followed his brother Floyd to Harvard, where both studied psychology
Was verbally adept, but lacked the statistical and laboratory skills of a dedicated scientist
Carved out his own career in the undeveloped area of personality
Met with Freud during a trip he took to Europe, but came away thinking that Freud had become blinded to the fact that the conscious influences on our behavior may be of greater importance than the unconscious ones
Sometimes called “the father of personality psychology”

11. Key concepts introduced by Allport
The distinction between the nomothetic versus the idiographic approach to the study of personality
The nomothetic approach is based on what Kant described as a tendency to generalize, and is typical for the natural sciences. It describes the effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena in general.
The idiographic approach is based on what Kant described as a tendency to specify, and is typical for the humanities. It describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, unique, and often subjective phenomena.
The concepts of common traits, central traits, secondary traits, and cardinal traits
The concept of functional autonomy
The concept of the self (proprium) and how it develops

12. What are your traits? http://www.personaldna.com
Where do you stand on different trait dimensions? To find out, take the Personal DNA test at:
You should also take the Big Five Inventory at:
Be sure to print out the results when you’re done.

13. Key concepts introduced by Allport
The distinction between the nomothetic versus the idiographic approach to the study of personality
The concepts of common traits, central traits, secondary traits, and cardinal traits
The concept of functional autonomy
The concept of the self (proprium) and how it develops

14. Henry Murray ( )
Showed no early interest in psychology as a career
Earned a PhD in biochemistry at Cambridge University in 1927
Discovered Carl Jung’s work and became enamored of it
Decided to enter the field of psychology after having long conversations with Jung in Vienna
Worked briefly for the OSS during World War II
Taught at Harvard until his retirement in 1962
Was a biographer of Herman Melville

15. Key concepts introduced by Murray
The approach which he called personology, in which needs are assumed to be the basic elements of personality
The concept of largely unconscious psychogenic needs (as opposed to viscerogenic needs)
The concept of environmental press
The development of the TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

16. Some of Henry Murray’s psychogenic needs
Definition
n Achievement
To accomplish tasks, surpass others
n Affiliation
To approach liked others, win their affection
n Aggression
To fight opposition, attack, seek revenge
n Autonomy
To seek freedom, independence, resist coercion
n Dominance
To control others, to influence, persuade, command
n Exhibition
To impress, excite, amaze, fascinate, or shock others
n Harmavoidance
To avoid pain, injury, illness, danger, or death
n Nurturance
To give sympathy, support, and to console others
n Order
To put things in order, be neat, organized, clean
n Play
To seek fun, jokes, laughter
n Sentience
To seek and enjoy sensuous experiences
n Sex
To form erotic relationships, have sex
n Understanding
To seek answers, to enjoy analysis, theory, reason

17. Key concepts introduced by Murray
The approach which he called personology, in which needs are assumed to be the basic elements of personality
The concept of largely unconscious psychogenic needs (as opposed to viscerogenic needs)
The concept of environmental press
The development of the TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

18. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray in the 1930s

19. Raymond B. Cattell ( )
Was born in England and raised in Torquay
Was profoundly affected by what he witnessed as an adolescent during World War I
Changed his plans of becoming a chemist and enrolled in graduate study in psychology at the University of London
Worked with Charles Spearman, who taught him to use factor analysis, which he later applied to search for the fundamental dimensions of human personality
Came to the US to work with Thorndike at Columbia
Worked at Clark University until Allport invited him to join the faculty at Harvard
Was extremely hard working, and enormously productive as a writer and researcher

20. Key concepts introduced by Cattell
The idea that factor analysis, which had previously been used to study different forms of intelligence, could be used to identify source traits
The notion that source traits are the fundamental dimensions of human personality
The development of the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF): Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional Stability, Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness, Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, and Tension

21. The Big Five personality factors
Characteristics
Extraversion
Sociable versus retiring, fun-loving versus sober, assertive versus reserved
Agreeableness
Softhearted versus ruthless, trusting versus suspicious, helpful versus uncooperative
Conscientiousness
Well-organized versus disorganized, careful versus careless, self-disciplined versus weak-willed
Neuroticism
Worried versus calm, insecure versus secure, self-pitying versus self-satisfied
Openness
Imaginative versus down-to-earth, preference for variety versus preference for routine, independent versus conforming

22. Historical identification of the Big Five personality dimensions
Investigator(s)
Factor I
Factor 2
Factor 3
Factor 4
Factor 5
Fiske (1949)
Confident self-expression
Social adaptability
Conformity
Emotional control
Inquiring intellect
Tupes & Christal (1961)
Surgency
Agreeableness
Dependability
Emotional stability
Culture
Norman (1963)
Conscientiousness
Borgatta (1964)
Assertiveness
Likeability
Task interest
Emotionality
Intelligence
Digman & Take-moto-Chock (1981)
Extraversion
Friendly compliance
Will to achieve
Ego strength (Anxiety)
Intellect
Goldberg (1981, 1989)
McCrae & Costa (1985)
Neuroticism
Openness to experience
Conley (1985)
Social extraversion
Impulse control
Intellectual interests
Botwin & Buss (1989)
Dominant-assured
Intellectance-culture
Peabody & Goldberg (1989)
Power
Love
Work
Affect

27. Criticisms and limitations of the Big Five model
There is some debate about what the five factors mean.
There is some disagreement about the number of personality factors that should be regarded as fundamental.
The set of trait terms from which the Big Five model was derived did not include evaluative ones, such as worthy or immoral.
There are small variations among the Big Five models proposed by different theorists that critics find troublesome but most Big Five theorists do not.
The Big Five model is often criticized for being atheoretical. However, the same criticism could have been applied to the periodic table of elements in chemistry, in the days before chemical processes were well understood.

28. The situation versus trait controversy: Walter Mischel’s criticisms of the trait approach
Trait measures do not predict relevant behavioral measures well (the presumed .30 to .40 upper range of trait-based prediction).
There is little evidence for cross-situational consistency. Behavior reveals more situational specificity than most trait theorists suggest.
The predictive validity of trait measures does not justify their use in making important decisions about people (e.g., diagnosis and hiring decisions).

29. Three categories of moderating variables in personality research
Category
Function
Representative Example
Situational moderating variables
Specify in which types of situations traits will be good versus poor predictors of their trait-relevant behaviors
Psychologically weak versus strong situations
Personal moderating variables
Specify for which types of people traits will be good versus poor predictors of their trait-relevant behaviors
Private self-consciousness
Criterion moderating variables
Specify the types of behaviors that traits will predict either well or poorly
Level of aggregation of the behavioral measure

30. Responses to Mischel’s criticisms
General traits do predict overall patterns of trait-relevant behavior fairly well. What they don’t predict well are single behaviors measured on a single occasion in a single situation.
Traits can be used to predict trait-relevant behavior in some, but not all, types of situations. In psychologically “weak” situations, traits are important in determining behavior. However, in psychologically “strong” situations, the influence of traits on behavior can be much more limited.
In general, an isolated trait accounts for about as much variance in a relevant behavior as an isolated situational variable does. The typical correlation in each case is about .20.

31. Application of the Big Five model in the workplace
Of the Big Five dimensions, conscientiousness is the best overall predictor of work performance across many different types of occupations.
Depending on the job description, other Big Five dimensions may also emerge as good predictors of performance:
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Openness to experience
Emotional stability

34. Problems with the use of self-report inventories
Lack of self-insight
Faking
Faking good
Faking bad
Carelessness
Sabotage
Response tendencies
Social desirability response set
Acquiescence (agreement) response set