1. Neuroscience and Behavior
Chapter 2
Neuroscience and Behavior
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2. Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior
Learning Outcomes
Explain the structure of a neuron
Describe how neurons fire
Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another
Identify neurotransmitters
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Key Terms
Behavioral Neuroscientists Neurons Dendrites Axon Terminal Buttons Myelin Sheath All-or-none-law Resting state Action potential Mirror Neurons Synapse Neurotransmitters Excitatory Messages Inhibitory Messages Reuptake Central Nervous System (CNS) Spinal Cord Reflex Sensory (afferent) Neurons Motor (efferent) Neurons Interneuron Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Division Autonomic Division Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division Behavioral Genetic Hormones Pituitary Gland Central Core Cerebellum Reticular Formation Thalamus Hypothalamus Limbic System Cerebral Cortex Lobes Motor Area Sensory Area Association Areas Neuroplasticity Hemispheres Lateralization Biofeedback
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4. The Structure of the Neuron
Neurons: nerve cells; the basic elements of the nervous system
Dendrites: fibers that receive electrical messages (impulses) from other neurons
Axon: long extension that carries messages to other neurons
Terminal Buttons – small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons.
To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons must be insulated. Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon.
For the muscles in our bodies to produce the complex movements that make up any meaningful physical activity, the brain has to provide the right messages to them and coordinate those messages.
Such messages, as well as those which enable us to think, remember, and experience emotion, are passed through specialized cells called neurons.
Perhaps as many as one trillion neurons throughout the body are involved in the control of behavior.
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Recap
1. Neurons – nerve cells that are the basic elements of the nervous system. They carry messages back and forth that enable people to think, remember, and experience emotion.
2. Dendrite – a cluster of fibers at one end of the neuron that receive incoming messages from other neurons.
3. Axon - a long tube-like extension at the other end of the neuron that carries messages to other neurons or body cells.
4. Terminal buttons – small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons.
5. Myelin sheath - a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon.
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How Neurons Fire
All-or-none law - The rule that neurons are either on or off
Before a neuron is triggered it is in a resting state.
During this state it has a negative electrical charge.
When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along
the cell membrane open briefly to allow positively-
charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million
ions per second. The sudden arrival of these positive
ions causes the charge within the nearby part of the
cell to change momentarily from negative to positive.
When the positive charge reaches a critical level,
the “trigger” is pulled, and an electrical impulse,
known as an action potential, travels along the axon
of the neuron.
All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off.
Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive.
Mirror neurons Neurons that fire when a person enacts a particular behavior and also when a person views others’ behavior.
Movement of the action potential across the axon. Just before Time 1, positively charged ions enter the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the neuron from negative to positive and triggering an action potential. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing). Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative.
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How Neurons Fire
Action potential - An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive.
Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. Just after an action potential has occurred, a neuron cannot fire again immediately no matter how much stimulation it receives.
- It is just like a gun that has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, the neuron is ready to fire once again.
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Recap
1. All-or-none law - The rule that neurons are either on or off.
2. Resting state - The state when a neuron is off and has a negative electrical charge of about 270 millivolts.
3. Action potential - An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive.
4. Mirror neurons – Neurons that fire both when a person enacts a particular behavior and when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior.
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How Neurons Fire
Mirror neurons - that fire both when a person enacts a particular behavior and when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior. ). Mirror neurons may help explain how and why humans have the capacity to understand the intentions of other people.
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10. Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap
Synapse: the space between two neurons where the axon of the sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of the receiving neuron with chemical messages
Neurotransmitters: the chemical messengers received at dendrites or cell body of receiving neuron
Inside a neuron, messages travel in electrical form.
Between neurons, messages travel through a chemical transmission system.
In a computer, each part is physically connected to the other part. In contrast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for structural connections between components.
Instead, a synapse, a chemical connection, bridges the gap between two neurons.
Neurotransmitters are important for maintaining vital brain and body functions. As well, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders.
More than 100 chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified.
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11. Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap (cont.)
Deliver excitatory (make it more likely receiving neuron will fire) or inhibitory (make it less likely they will fire) messages
Reuptake: terminal buttons of sending neuron reabsorb neurotransmitters
(A) A synapse is the junction between an axon and a dendrite. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). (B) Just as the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000).
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Recap
Neurons in your brain connect to each other through a chemical connection called a synapse. Synapse - the space between the axon of a sending neuron and the dendrite of a receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters – chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to a dendrite of a receiving neuron. Excitatory messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages do just the opposite; they provide chemical information that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Reuptake – The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button.
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13. Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers
There are more than a hundred chemicals that act as
neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters carry messages across the
synapse to a dendrite of a receiving neuron.
Two common neurotransmitters are:
Acetylcholine (ACh): messages related to muscle movement, memory, & cognitive functions; may be related to Alzheimer’s
Dopamine (DA): messages related to movement, attention, & learning; related to Parkinson’s & possibly schizophrenia
Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Not only are they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders.
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14. Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers
Glutamate – a common neurotransmitter that plays a role in metabolism. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) moderates behaviors from eating to aggression. It acts as a natural calming and anti-epileptic agent in the brain. Serotonin is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain. It is most noted for its impact on mood and the sleep/wake cycle. Serotonin plays a key role in the treatment of depression. Endorphins are involved in the brain’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood.
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The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating within the Body
Learning Outcomes
Explain how the structures of the nervous system are linked together
Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior
Chapter 2 Module 6
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The Nervous System
Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Reflex: automatic response to a stimulus; controlled by the spinal cord
composed of brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord
The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
The spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. However, it’s not just a communication channel. It also controls some simple behaviors on its own, with no help from the brain.
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Nervous System
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18. The Nervous System (cont.)
Somatic division: voluntary movements & communication with sense organs
Autonomic division: involuntary functions of the body that keep you alive
Sympathetic - The part of the ANS that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat. This response is often called the “fight-or-flight” response.
Parasympathetic - The part of the ANS that acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. It also directs the body to store energy for emergencies.
The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies.
The sympathetic division acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations. This response is often called the “fight-or-flight” response.
The parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency is ended. It also directs the body to store energy for use in emergencies.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body.
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19. The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands
Endocrine system: chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body through hormones in the bloodstream
Hormones - travel throughout the body via the bloodstream, but they take longer to reach their destination than neural messages. Hormonal messages may take minutes to reach their destination, and neural messages are measured in thousandths of a second.
Pituitary gland - controls the functioning of the endocrine system. It is called the “master gland” because it controls the functioning of the other glands and it also controls growth. The brain controls the pituitary gland.
Another of the body’s communication systems, the endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. It also influences—and is influenced by—the functioning of the nervous system. Pituitary gland The major component of the endocrine system, or “master gland,” which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system.
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20. Endocrine System Continued
Other endocrine glands affect emotional reactions, sexual urges, and energy levels. Hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, but artificial hormones are many times used to treat certain illnesses. This is referred to as hormone replacement therapy (HRT). One example of HRT is to prescribe hormones to older women experiencing menopause. As the body stops producing hormones, the HRT replaces them and minimizes the effects of diminishing hormones.
 Artificial hormones can also be dangerous. Some athletes use testosterone, a male hormone, and steroids, which act like testosterone, to enhance performance. Steroids cause increased muscle weight and strength; however, they can lead to heart attacks, strokes, cancer and even violent behavior.
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Recap
The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream by secreting hormones.
Hormones are chemicals secreted by the endocrine system that travel throughout the body via the bloodstream and regulate the functioning or growth of the body.  
The pituitary gland controls the functioning of the endocrine system. It is called the “master gland” because it controls the functioning of the other glands and it also controls growth.
Hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) is when artificial hormones are used to replace deficient hormones.
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Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral genetics researchers are finding increasing evidence that cognitive abilities, personality traits, sexual orientation, and psychological disorders are determined to some extent by genetic factors
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23. Behavioral Genetics Continued
Behavioral genetics lies at the heart of the nature-nurture question, one of the key issues in the study of psychology. Behavioral geneticists have evidence that suggests our genetic inheritance predisposes us to respond in particular ways to our environment, and even to seek out particular kinds of environments. For instance, research indicates that genetic factors may be related to such diverse behaviors as level of family conflict, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, and general sociability
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24. Behavioral Genetics Continued
Certain human characteristics and behaviors are related to the presence or absence of particular genes. Genes – the inherited material that controls the transmission of traits. Chromosomes – rod-shaped structure that transmits genetic information across generations. DNA – chemical pairs that are the basic component of genes Genome – the total genetic makeup or “map” of humans. Studies involving behavioral genetics are focused on developing new diagnostic and treatment techniques for genetic deficiencies that can lead to physical and psychological difficulties.
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Recap
The Central Nervous System (CNS) – The part of the nervous system that is composed of brain and spinal cord. 2. Reflexes - automatic, involuntary responses to incoming stimuli. 3. Sensory (afferent) neurons – Transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. 4. Motor (efferent) neurons - communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. 5. Interneurons – connect sensory and motor neurons and carry messages between the two. 6. Peripheral Nervous System - the part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions, is made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, and branches out from the spinal cord and brain to reach the extremities of the body.
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Recap
7. Somatic division - the part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.
8. Autonomic division - the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs.
9. Sympathetic division - the part of the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat.
10. Parasympathetic division – the part of the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system that acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended.
11. Behavioral genetics - studies the effects of heredity on behavior.
12. Genes – the inherited material that controls the transmission of traits.
13. Chromosomes – rod-shaped structure that transmits genetic information across generations.
14. DNA – chemical pairs that are the basic component of genes 
15. Genome – the total genetic makeup or “map” of humans.
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The Brain
Learning Outcomes
Illustrate how researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain
Describe the central core of the brain
Describe the limbic system of the brain
Describe the cerebral cortex of the brain
Recognize neuroplasticity and its implications
Explain how the two hemispheres of the brain operate interdependently and the implications for human behavior
Chapter 2 Module 7
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The Human Brain
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29. Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG) - records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. New techniques are used to transform the brain’s electrical activity into a pictorial representation of the brain that allows more precise diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities.
Positron emission tomography (PET) scan -scans that show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. PET scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a computer can determine the more active regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work.
The electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Although traditionally the EEG could produce only a graph of electrical wave patterns, new techniques are now used to transform the brain’s electrical activity into a pictorial representation of the brain that allows more precise diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities.
Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. PET scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a computer can determine which are the more active regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is one of the newest types of scan. By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, TMS causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity. Researchers then are able to note the effects of this interruption on normal brain functioning. The procedure is sometimes called a “virtual lesion” because it produces effects analogous to what would occur if areas of the brain were physically cut. The enormous advantage of TMS, of course, is that the virtual cut is only temporary.
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30. Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - provides a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) -
one of the newest types of scans that exposes a tiny region of the brain to a strong
magnetic field, which causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity.
Researchers then are able to note the effects of this interruption on normal brain
functioning. The procedure is sometimes called a virtual lesion because it produces
effects that are similar to what would occur if areas of the brain were physically cut.
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31. The Central Core: Our “Old Brain”
Central core: controls basic functioning
Hindbrain: medulla (breathing and heartbeat), pons (integrates movement between right and left side of the body, regulates sleep), and cerebellum (controls bodily balance)
Midbrain into forebrain: reticular formation (can immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce arousal), thalamus (relay station for information about the senses), and hypothalamus (maintains homeostasis and regulates vital, survival behavior)
While the capabilities of the human brain far exceed those of the brain of any other species, humans share some basic functions, such as breathing, eating, and sleeping, with more primitive animals.
The part of the brain known as the central core is quite similar in all vertebrates (species with backbones). Its evolution can be traced back some 500 million years to primitive structures found in nonhuman species.
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32. The Central Core: Our “Old Brain”
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recap
The central core of the brain begins at the base of the skull and is known as the hindbrain, which
contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
1. Medulla – controls critical body functions such as breathing and heartbeat.
2. Pons –acts as a transmitter of motor information, coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the right and left halves of the body.
3. Cerebellum – controls bodily balance, muscle movement, coordination of sensory information and problem solving.
4. Reticular formation - activates other parts of the brain immediately to produce general bodily arousal and signals the cerebral cortex to remain alert during sleep.
5. Thalamus – acts as a relay station for information about the senses, determines if things are good or bad, and forwards the information to the cerebral cortex.
6. Hypothalamus - maintains homeostasis, produces and regulates survival behavior, helps to provide a constant body temperature and monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the cells.
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34. Helpful Hints
Here are some hints to help remember the parts of the brain
Medulla: Without breathing, you would be very “dull.”
Pons: Ponds hand cream is something you put on your hands—could help your muscles move.
Cerebellum: You need this for balance—Cere-bal (ance)-um
Reticular formation: Like a military formation, sends messages up and down within the brain.
Thalamus: You would throw a ball during a relay race. The thalamus is a relay station.
Hypothalamus: Sounds like “homeostasis,” the state of stability in the body’s internal environment.
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35. The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core
Limbic system: control a variety of basic functions relating to emotion, learning, memory, pleasure, and self-preservation (ex., eating, aggression, reproduction); includes the amygdala and hippocampus
The limbic system is involved in several important functions, including self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure.
The limbic system is sometimes referred to as the “animal brain” because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals. Injury to the limbic system can cause marked changes in behavior. An animal that once was docile can turn into a savage. An animal that once was savage can become completely gentle.
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36. The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core
When you hear the word “amygdala,” think “fear.” When you hear the word “hippocampus,” think “memory.”
The structures of the limbic system jointly control basic functions relating to emotions, learning, memory, the experience of pleasure and self-preservation, such as eating, aggression, and reproduction.
Injury to the limbic system can produce striking changes in behavior. For example, injury to the amygdala, which is involved in fear and aggression, can turn docile animals into aggressive ones and wild animals into docile ones 
The limbic system is referred to as the “animal brain” because its structures and functions are similar to those of other mammals.
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37. The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”
Cerebral cortex: responsible for sophisticated, uniquely human information processing
Frontal lobes
Parietal lobes
Temporal lobes
Occipital lobes
The cerebral cortex is referred to as the “new brain” because of its relatively recent evolution. It consists of a mass of deeply folded, rippled, convoluted tissue.
Although only about one-twelfth of an inch thick, it would, if flattened out, cover an area more than 2 feet square.
This configuration allows the surface area of the cortex to be considerably greater than it would be if it were smoother and more uniformly packed into the skull. The uneven shape also permits a high level of integration of neurons, allowing sophisticated information processing.
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38. The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”
The cortex has four major sections called lobes. 1. The frontal lobe – located in the front center of the cortex – concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions and problem-solving. 2. The parietal lobe – located behind the frontal lobe – concerned with perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain. 3. The temporal lobe - located below the frontal and parietal lobe at the center portion of the cortex - concerned with perception and recognition of hearing (auditory stimuli) and memory. 4. The occipital lobe – located at the back of the brain behind the parietal and temporal lobes - concerned with vision.
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39. The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” (cont.)
Motor area - responsible for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific location within the body.
Sensory area - have three regions that are responsible for body sensations like touch and pressure, sight, and sound. The degree of sensitivity is related to the amount of tissue allocated to that sense. The senses of sight and sound are also represented in specific areas of the cerebral cortex. An auditory area located in the temporal lobe is responsible for the sense of hearing. Particular locations within the auditory area respond to specific pitches. A visual area located in the occipital lobe is responsible for transforming raw sensory input of images from the eyes into meaningful stimuli.
Motor area The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement.
Sensory area The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of tissue allocated to that sense.
Association areas One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech.
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40. The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” (cont.)
Association areas - are the sites of higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech. They make up a large portion of the cerebral cortex and control executive functions, which are abilities relating to planning, goal setting, judgment, and impulse control. When parts of the association areas are damaged, people undergo personality changes that affect their ability to make moral judgments and process emotions. At the same time, people with damage in those areas can still be capable of reasoning logically, performing calculations, and recalling information
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41. Motor
Association
Sensory
Sensory area for impulses from eyes

42. Recap
The cerebral cortex is referred to as the “new brain,” because of its recent evolution. It contains four lobes and is responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain. 2. The frontal lobe – located in the front center of the cortex – concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions and problem-solving. 3. The parietal lobe – located behind the frontal lobe – concerned with perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain. 4. The temporal lobe - located below the frontal and parietal lobe at the center portion of the cortex – concerned with perception and recognition of hearing (auditory stimuli) and memory. 5. The occipital lobe – located at the back of the brain behind the parietal and temporal lobes concerned with vision. 6. The motor areas of the cortex are responsible for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific location within the body. 7. The sensory areas of the cortex have three regions that are responsible for body sensations like touch and pressure, sight, and sound. 8. The association areas of the cerebral cortex are the sites of higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech. They make up a large portion of the cerebral cortex and control executive functions, which are abilities relating to planning, goal setting, judgment, and impulse control. Review this interactive guide about the anatomy of the brain

43. Neuroplasticity and the Brain
Neuroplasticity: changes in the brain over the lifespan having to do with the addition of new neurons (neurogenesis), new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas
Interconnections between neurons become more complex throughout life, and it now
appears that new neurons are also created in certain areas of the brain during
adulthood. This process is called neurogenesis. New neurons may become integrated
with existing neural connections after some kinds of brain injury during adulthood
Scientists have learned in recent years that the brain continually reorganizes itself in a process termed neuroplasticity. Although for many years conventional wisdom held that no new brain cells are created after childhood, new research finds otherwise. Not only do the interconnections between neurons become more complex throughout life, but it now appears that new neurons are also created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood—a process called neurogenesis. In fact, new neurons may become integrated with existing neural connections after some kinds of brain injury during adulthood (Bhardwaj et al., 2006; Jang, You, & Ahn, 2007; Poo & Isaacson, 2007).
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44. The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?
Hemispheres: left and right halves of the brain; each controls motion and sensation in the opposite side of the body (“right brain” and “left brain”)
Lateralization: dominance of one hemisphere in specific functions
The most recent development, at least in evolutionary terms in the organization and operation of the human brain probably occurred in the last million years: a specialization of the functions controlled by the left and right sides of the brain.
Despite the appearance of similarity between the two hemispheres, they are somewhat different in the functions they control and in the ways they control them.
The differences in specialization between the hemispheres are not great, and the degree and nature of lateralization vary from one person to another. Both hemispheres function in tandem.
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45. The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?
The brain is divided into two halves, referred to as the left and right brain. Because of the way nerves in the brain are connected to the rest of the body, these symmetrical left and right halves, called hemispheres, control motion and receive sensation from the opposite side of the body. The left hemisphere of the brain generally controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. Thus, damage to the right side of the brain is typically indicated by functional difficulties in the left side of the body.
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46. The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?
The two hemispheres of the brain seem similar, but they are somewhat
different in the functions they control and in the ways they control them.
Certain behaviors are more likely to reflect activity in one hemisphere than in
the other. This is referred to as lateralization.
Left hemisphere: Controls muscles on the right side of the body and concentrates more on tasks that require verbal competence, such as speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning. In addition, the left hemisphere tends to process information sequentially, one bit at a time
Right hemisphere: Controls muscles on the left side of the body and affects nonverbal areas such as the understanding of spatial relationships, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression. The right hemisphere tends to process information globally, considering it as a whole
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47. The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?
The differences in specialization between the hemispheres are not great, and the degree and nature of lateralization vary from one person to another. If you are right-handed, the control of language is probably concentrated more in your left hemisphere. If you are among the ten percent of people who are left-handed or are ambidextrous (you use both hands interchangeably), it is much more likely that the language centers of your brain are located more in the right hemisphere or are divided equally between the left and right hemispheres.
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Recap
1. The left hemisphere of the brain generally controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. 2. Lateralization – when behaviors are more likely to reflect activity in one hemisphere than in the other. 3. Left hemisphere of the brain - controls muscles on the right side of the body and concentrates more on tasks that require verbal competence, such as speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning. 4. Right hemisphere of the brain - controls muscles on the left side of the body and affects nonverbal areas such as the understanding of spatial relationships, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional expression.
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49. McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Homework
Go to the Mensa website listed below and take the ‘A Fun IQ Test’ and ‘Simple IQ Part 2’. Print off both test answers or results after you have taken it. Place your name and date on the print outs and turn them in to me.
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