2. When classifying governments, you can ask five questions to help you classify them:
1. Who can participate? 2. How is power distributed between the central and local governments? 3. How are the legislative, executive, and judicial branches structured? 4. What is the relationship between the legislative and executive branch? 5. What type of electoral systems do they have?

3. 1. Who can participate? The two classifications are authoritarian or
democratic

4. 2. How is power distributed between the central and local governments?
Decentralized
Centralized
Federal systems of government are decentralized.
Unitary systems are centralized.

5. Federal Systems Advantages Disadvantages
Protects ethnic, linguistic, or religious minorities.
Serves as a check on ambitious rulers and protects markets and citizen freedoms
Allows for experimentation.
Citizens may choose the policy that best fits them at the regional level.
Limited equality because citizens get different treatments and benefits from different local governments.
Encourages national- regional divisions, think the Civil War

6. Unitary Systems Advantages Disadvantages
Are in a better position to redistribute resources from richer regions to poorer regions (thus creating more equality)
More efficient
Local needs are often overlooked by the central government.

8. Sometimes, leaders of unitary systems voluntarily choose to decentralize power
Termed Devolution
UK with Scotland and Wales
To pacify political rivals (intra- or interparty rivalry; devolution in the United Kingdom as an example).
To prevent revolution.
Ethnic/regional/national cleavages.
To increase legitimacy.
To increase political participation.
Political efficiency (such as distribution of services and tax collection).
To increase accountability of local leaders (e.g., China)

9. 3. How are the legislative, executive, and judicial branches structured?

10. Prime Minister and President

11. Types of Executive Systems
Presidential
Parliamentary
Typically, a single chief executive who performs ceremonial and political roles.
Both Head of State and Head of Government
Terms of office are fixed.
Presidents typically have veto power.
Separation of powers and checks and balances
Typically, a split chief executive
Head of State, symbolizes people
Head of Government, runs the State and directs activities
The influence of the executive rests almost primarily with their influence over the legislature.
Terms of office are determined by the maximum term for the parliament.
The veto power is used much less frequently, if at all.

13. Nations with Prime Minister Systems
Red-pure systems
Yellow and green—adapted systems

14. Shinzo Abe- Japan
Manmohan Singh - India
Benjamin Netanyahu- Israel
David Cameron
David Cameron- UK

15. Presidential Systems--blue

16. Enrique Pen͂a Nieto- Mexico
Barack Obama
Dilma Rousseff- Brazil
Goodluck Jonathan-Nigeria
Hassan Rouhani- US

17. Similarities Between Presidential and Parliamentary Systems
Chosen through competitive party structures.
This often leads to smoother transitions of power.
Primarily responsible for foreign policy decisions.
Perform system functions… for example, a child’s first encounter with politics is usually through a president or prime minster.

18. Comparing Cabinets PRESIDENTIAL CABINETS PARLIAMENTARY CABINETS
The president selects cabinet members and, sometimes, must go through legislative approval.
Role is limited.
The entire cabinet is subject to the legislature and the prime minister (PM) is just the “first among equals.”
The PM must maintain the confidence of the parliamentary majority so they must consult the legislature when choosing a cabinet.
There are distinct differences in how a cabinet is formed depending on whether there is a two-party or multi-party system

19. Advantages of Parliamentary Systems
Pros
Cons
Efficiency in passing legislation
Clearer accountability
Instability, a vote of no confidence can be called at any time
Concentration of power and hasty decisions
Indirect election of prime minister

20. Advantages of a Presidential System
Pros
Cons
A check of majority rule
National mandate
Difficulty in removing an unpopular president
Gridlock
Creeping authoritarianism

21. Bureaucracies
The bureaucracy has almost exclusive control over implementing laws and regulations.
Executives and bureaucracies mutually depend on each other.
Executives need bureaucracies to carry out their policies and make decisions, while bureaucracies need guidance, direction, and resources from the executive.
Examples of mutual cooperation: creating budgets and reorganization of administrative capabilities.

22. Bureaucracies
Bureaucracies are often called “quasi-legislative” because they often have experts clarify legislation.
Bureaucracies can also perform “quasi-judicial” functions because they ensure laws are followed. They monitor and penalize citizens or organizations that do not follow their laws.
Laws are, typically, general so implementing and enforcing policies often depends on the interpretations of the bureaucracy. They also have some leeway as to how much they want to enforce certain laws.

23. Comparative Bureaucracies
Democracies have bureaucracies with discretionary power that allow them to make some decisions that affect policies
Bureaucrats are usually appointed, not elected so they are a source of stability.
Usually earned through merit vs. patronage. Although patronage exists.
Authoritarian regimes have almost complete control over bureaucracies business.
Bureaucrats are more likely to get their jobs through patronage (loyalty and favors) than through merit.

25. Legislative Bodies
Assemblies vary in size and organization. Some have one house (unicameral) and some have two (bicameral).
Are the two houses equal in strength, is there an upper and lower house?
Bicameral adds an extra layer of checks and balances on a system

26. Legislative Bodies All assemblies have committee structures
Functions of assemblies include deliberating, debating, and voting on policies that come before them. Their decisions about these policies carry the force of law.
Other functions include controlling public spending (power of the purse) and appointment powers.

28. Assemblies are, in theory, representatives of the people
Assemblies are, in theory, representatives of the people. The idea that officials should mirror the characteristics of the citizens as much as possible is known as descriptive representation.

29. Judicial Bodies
Constitutional Courts are the fourth type of government body (bureaucracy, legislative, executive branches).
The constitutional court is the highest judicial body that rules on constitutionality of laws (judicial review) and other government actions.
Judicial power has grown over the past century because of the desire to protect human rights.
Judicial Independence: the degree the court is from the influence of the other branches
Civil law is the most widespread system of law around the world.[1] It is also sometimes known as Continental European law. The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code.
While the concept of codification dates back to the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon ca BC, civil law systems derive from the Roman Empire and, more particularly, the Corpus Juris Civilis issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. AD 529. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law.[2][3] Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.

30. Code vs. Common Law Common Law Code Law (Civil Law) Religious Law
Based on precedent
Judges modify the system over time with their decisions
Originated in the UK
UK, US, Nigeria in the South and at the federal level, Hong Kong
Sometimes known as Continental European law
The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code.
Only legislative enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.
China & Russia
Sharia Law
The moral code and religious law of Islam
Based on Koran
Secondary status for women
Lots of capital Crimes
Iran, North of Nigeria

31. 4. What is the relationship between the legislative and executive branch?

32. Branches separate, independent, and co-equal.
PRESIDENTIAL
Parliamentary
Branches separate, independent, and co-equal.
Chosen independently of legislature, fixed term, and broad powers not controlled by legislative branch.
Separation of Powers and Checks and balances
Mostly located in Western Hemisphere.
Executive (Prime Minister, Premier, President) is from legislative branch.
Leader from majority party and chosen from legislative body.
Subject to control of Legislature
Majority of governments in the world have parliamentary government.

33. Vote of Confidence
A vote of confidence may occur in a parliamentary system when the majority party in the parliament disagrees with a policy or action of the prime minister.
If the majority party and the prime minister are in a disagreement on an issue, the prime minster is expected to dissolve the parliament and call for new elections.
If citizens vote for a different party to become the majority
party, then a successful vote of confidence has taken place.
DISCUSSION: What would have to happen for a vote of NO confidence to take place?

34. Chicken Little: What do you mean the government if falling?
Vote of no confidence
Is a statement or vote which states that a person in a superior position - be it government, managerial, etc. - is no longer deemed fit to hold that position.
This may be based on said person falling short in some respect, failing to carry out obligations, or making choices that other members feel are detrimental.
As a parliamentary motion, it demonstrates to the head of state that the elected parliament no longer has confidence in (one or more members of) the appointed government.
A censure motion is different from a no-confidence motion. "No Confidence" leads to compulsory resignation of the council of ministers whereas "Censure" is meant to show disapproval and does not result in the resignation of ministers.
The censure motion can be against an individual minister or a group of ministers, but the no-confidence motion is directed against the entire council of ministers
In the Westminster system, the defeat of a supply bill (one that concerns the spending of money) automatically requires the resignation of the government or dissolution of Parliament, much like a non-confidence vote, since a government that cannot spend money is hamstrung. This is called loss of supply.

35. 5. What type of electoral systems do they have?
1. Single Member Districts (SMD). AKA “winner-take-all”, “first past the post (FPTP)”
Follows plurality election rules
US’s system

36. 2. Proportional representation (PR) is where the
nation is divided into a few (or one), large districts, called multimember districts (MMD), and competing parties offer a list of candidates rather than a single candidate.
The number of representatives in the legislature is proportional to the percentage of votes it gets.
► Many nations have a minimum threshold of voters (3-5%)

37. You must copy this chart in your notes

38. Advantages of PR Electoral Systems
Pros
Cons
Minority interests represented
Women are more likely to elected to office
Emphasis on ideas over personality
Too many small parties with disproportionate importance
PR systems facilitate extremist parties
It can be hard to form coalitions and have stable governments

41. How would a proportional representation with a multimember district system look in the US?

42. The whole nation would be a district and you would vote for a party (there would be around 5 of them) and not a candidate.
There is a chance the person in the House would not be from your area.

44. House of Representatives New Look
435 seats in play
Election results:
Business Party 25% seats-> 117 seats
Evangelical Party 23% seats-> 108 seats
Tea Party 4% seats
Working Class Party 35% seats-> 163 seats
African American Party 10% 44 seats-> 47 seats
Green Party 3% 0 seats
5% threshold requirement

45. How would the government form?
Working Class Party 25% seats-> 117 seats
Evangelical Party 23% seats-> 108 seats
Business Party 35% seats-> 163 seats
African American Party 10% 44 seats-> 47 seats
A coalition would form between two or more groups
The Business and Evangelical Parties would form a governing coalition and the top candidate on the Business ticket would be the new PM with cabinet full of people from both parties

46. Mixed-Member Proportional Representation Explained

47. Political Parties
Advantages to a 2 Party System (Comes from SMD FPTP):
There is a closer relationship between representatives and constituencies
Governments are more stable
The two-party system is more efficient at governing and lawmaking than a multiparty system
The two-party system simplifies voters’ decisions
The two-party system promotes a greater consensus.

48. Multiparty Systems
Multiparty systems (Come from MMD PR) have a combinations of parties,
voter support, and election laws that ensure that no
single party wins a legislative majority.
► Advantages:
The multiparty system provides representation for a greater number of ethnic groups
Parties are more accountable
Parties are more representative of different divisions in society.

49. Single Party System
Sometimes, a single party system emerges for a variety of reasons:
A revolution or coup that installs a single party. (Russian Revolution)
Emergence of a charismatic leader
An economic crisis that leads citizens to unify around a single leader/
party.
Constitutional imposition of a single party (NAZI Party in Germany)
An external threat that leads citizens to unify around a single party.
Ethnic/religious fragmentation.
Mexico once had this method
► Advantages:
Creates stability by enacting uniform policies
More efficient
Acts with a single voice
Unites different ethnicities into one group.

50. Parliamentary System
Presidential System
Legislative Branch relationship to the Chief Executive
Chief Executive (Government Head)
Head of State .
Election periods
Political Parties
Examples

51. Parliamentary System
Presidential System
Legislative Branch Relationship with Chief Executive
Parliament elected by voters. The majority party in Parliament chooses the prime minister.
Congress elected by voters. Legislative and executive functions are separate.
Chief Executive (Government Head)
Prime minister who heads council of ministers, or "Cabinet"
President, elected by voters, nominates cabinet members.
Head of State
Often a constitutional monarch. Legislatures often choose a ceremonial president, who acts as head of state.
President is head of state.
Election Periods
Prime minister can call new elections.
Held at fixed intervals.
Political Parties
Often a multiparty system. Government is formed by a ruling coalition of cooperating parties.
Usually a two-party system with third parties holding marginal power.
Examples
Israel, Great Britain, and her former colonies, such as India, Japan.
The United States, Mexico, Nigeria and Brazil.

53. Part Three (continued): Electoral Systems & Linkage Institutions
“Our political institutions work remarkably well. They are designed to clang against each other. The noise is democracy at work.” -- Michael Novak (American philosopher)

54. Electoral Systems Rules that decide how votes are Cast Counted
Translated into seats in a legislature

55. Electoral Systems (FPTP)
First Past the Post (FPTP), Plurality, Winner Take All
Winner must get more votes than anyone else
Does NOT require a majority to win*
Single member districts (SMD)
Encourages large, broad-based parties**
Why?
Single member districts (SMD) - candidates compete for a single representative’s seat
FPTP/plurality: Used by U.S., GB, India , Nigeria
Some countries amend plurality rule through use of a runoff. In a runoff, the two candidates who receive the most votes in the first round compete again. Candidate who gets most (a majority) is winner.
This only applies to true plurality voting, not 2nd round/majoritarian

56. Electoral Systems (PR)
Plurality systems encourage large, broad-based parties because…
no matter how many people run in a district, the person with the largest # of votes wins
this encourages parties to become larger, spreading their “umbrellas” to embrace more voters
Parties without big groups of voters supporting them have little hope of winning
The Problems with First Past the Post Voting Explained - YouTube

57. Electoral Systems Proportional Representation (PR)
Creates multi-member districts
More than one legislative seat in each district
Ballots are cast for a party, not an individual
Open vs closed list
Percentage of votes a party gets determines # of seats
Encourages multiple parties
Can have open or closed list (open – ppl pick, closed – party picks)
Example, if there are 10 seats and party gets 40% of vote, they get 4 seats
Used by Russia (since 2005), before that mixed.
Pure form encourages a large # of small parties because they have a good chance of getting some of their candidates elected.
This could lead to high # of parties with 1 seat (1%), so most set a threshold
Threshold – minimum % of vote that a party must receive in order to secure even one seat in the legislature
Usual threshold is 5% (Israel has lowest – only 2%)

58. Electoral Systems (PR)
Discussion Question: Why do PR Electoral Systems encourage a multi-party system?
Pure form encourages a large # of small parties because they have a good chance of getting some of their candidates elected
This could lead to high # of parties with 1 seat (1%), so most set a threshold
Threshold – minimum % of vote that a party must receive in order to secure even one seat in the legislature
Usual threshold is 5% (Israel has lowest – only 2%)

59. Electoral Systems
Discussion Question: What are the advantages of PR Electoral Systems?
Minority interests are represented
Women are more likely to be elected to office
Emphasis on ideas over personalities
Discussion Question: What are the disadvantages of PR Electoral Systems?
Too many small parties with disproportionate importance
PR facilitates extremist parties
Advantages:
Gives small parties platforms to voice their concerns; small parties may receive important cabinet positions in coalition governments
In every country in which women hold at least 25% of legislative seats, PR is used in the selection of the legislature; In countries with mixed systems, more women have held PR-linked seats than FPTP district seats
PR systems lead voters to select among political parties rather than individual candidates, making the policy positions of parties more important
Disadvantages:
While FPTP systems can shut small parties out of the legislature, PR systems can give them a disproportionate amount of power
Especially if threshold is low

60. Electoral Systems Mixed system
Combines first past the post & proportional
Some # of seats are single-member & some are proportional
Mixed-Member Proportional Representation Explained - YouTube
Example: Mexico (and Russia until 2007, now PR)
300 of the 500 members of the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house) are elected through FPTP in SMD and 200 members are selected by proportional representation

61. Types of Elections Election of public officials Referendum Initiative
Votes on policy issues
Examples?
Plebiscite
A non-binding vote to gauge public opinion on an issue
Initiative
Vote on a policy initiated by the people
Referendum – national ballot called by the govt on a policy issue
Allows the public to make direct decisions about policy itself. (US only at state/local level, but used nationally elsewhere)
Britain put devolution of powers to Scottish and Welsh parliaments before voters in those regions using a referendum
Britain also used national referendum for vote on Alternative Voting System
Plebiscite – type of referendum that is non-binding. Recent example is Puerto Rico/statehood
Initiative - This is done by getting a certain number of signatures from the public, which obligates the government to hold a national referendum.

62. Linkage Institutions Connect (“link”) the government to its citizens
Political parties
Interest groups
Media
The larger the population, the more complex the govt’s policy-making activities, the more likely the country is to have well-developed linkages institutions.

63. Linkage Institutions – Political Parties
Functions?
One-Party System
Communist States
One-Party Dominant System
Mexico during most of 20th cent (PRI domination)
Russia (United Russia)
Functions of a political party:
Help bring different people and ideas together to establish the means by which the majority can rule.
Provide labels for candidates that help citizens decide how to vote.
Hold politicians accountable to the electorate and other political elites.
One Party System
Definition: a party system in which one political party controls the govt and voters have no option to choose an opposition party
Communist states have one-party systems that dominate the govts
One-Party Dominant System
Def: a party system in which one large party directs the political system, but small parties exist and may compete in elections
In a nondemocratic regimes, may allow small, nonthreatening parties to exist to give legitimacy to regime

64. Linkage Institutions – Political Parties
Two-party system
The most rare system
Two-and-a-Half Party System?
Third party that influences which of two major parties get in power
Multi-party systems
Most common
Found in parliamentary systems commonly
Two Party system (US)
Def: a party system in which two main parties compete for majority control of the govt; small parties may exist but play no role in national electoral outcomes
Rare- Only 15 countries in world today (including U.S., UK, India & Nigeria)
Most important single reason for existence of a two-party system is plurality electoral system (FPTP).
Two-and-a-Half Party system (UK?)
Def: party system in which two large parties exist alongside a third party that receives a smaller but notable share of the national vote
The votes that one of the large parties loses to the 3rd party determine which of the two large parties control the govt
Presence of a third party can prevent a majority govt…would eventually lead to a multiparty system
Multi-Party System
Def: a party system with several important political parties, none of which generally gains a majority of the seats in the national legislature
Most European countries today have multi-party systems.
Most democracies use this
Usually arise in countries with strong parl. Systems, particularly those that use PR

65. Interest Groups Organizations of like-minded people
Want to influence & shape public policy
Often have a great deal in common with political parties
Discuss: How are interest groups different from political parties?

66. Interest Groups Differences:
Parties influence govt primarily through the electoral process (run candidates). Interest groups often support candidates, but do not run their own candidates.
Parties generate and support a broad spectrum of policies; interest groups support one or a few related policies.

67. Interest Groups Evaluate in terms of how much autonomy they have
Authoritarian (“transmission belts”)
Democracies
Pluralism
Corporatism
Power is split among many groups
Authoritarian
Groups have almost no independence
In China, only govt-endorsed groups may exist
Used as agents to extend party’s influence beyond its membership to shape views of
citizens.
Also used as transmission belt to convey to their members the views of the party elite.
Democracy
Interest Group Pluralism
Compete with each other and with govt for influence over state policy.
Multiple groups may represent a single societal interest.
Group membership is voluntary and limited.
Select their own leaders/raise their own funds
Groups often have a loose or decentralized organizational structure.
There is clear separation between interest groups and the government.

68. Interest Groups Corporatism Two Types: State Corporatism
Fewer groups compete, usually one for each interest sector (labor, ag)
Two Types:
State Corporatism
State determines which groups are brought in
Neocorporatism
Interest groups take the lead and dominate the state
Corporatism
The group’s monopoly over its sector is officially approved by the state and sometimes protected by the state

69. Interest Group Strength: Autonomy From the State
Less Autonomy
More Autonomy
Interest
Groups as
“Transmission
Belts”
Interest
Group
Pluralism
Corporatism
No autonomy
From the state
State and interest group autonomy mixed
Autonomy
from
the state

70. Free Answers and Hints
7 DO NOT PICK B
8 A
12 C
14 D

72. President and Prime Minister

73. Shinzo Abe
Manmohan Singh
Benjamin Netanyahu
David Cameron

74. Origins of Prime Minister
Robert Walpole, 1721
De facto
King George
Absenteeism
No interest
No English!

75. Modern Prime Minister system
Benjamin Disraeli
1868
Adopted as Official Title
in 1905
“First among equals…”

76. Chairman or Chief? Chairman—facilitator of government
Chief—forceful leader of government, leader of policy agenda

77. Presidential Systems--blue

78. Enrique Pen͂a Nieto
Barack Obama
Dilma Rouseff
Goodluck Jonathan
Hassan Rouhani

79. Origins of Presidential System

80. Hamilton’s Federalist Papers 67-77

81. Federalist Number 69 Four year term, elected not hereditary
Limited length of term
Can be removed through impeachment
Congress can override veto
Commander-in-chief only of those in service
Can’t dissolve Congress
Treaties must be approved by Senate
In short, a president like the governor of New York, not like a king

82. Federalist Number 70 Need for energy in the executive
“a feeble executive implies feeble execution of the government”
Unity in the executive
Limited length of terms
Adequate support
Competent powers
But safety against a tyrant

83. Clerk or Steward Richard Neustadt

84. [Theodore Roosevelt] took the view that the President as a "steward of the people" should take whatever action necessary for the public good unless expressly forbidden by law or the Constitution." I did not usurp power," he wrote, "but I did greatly broaden the use of executive power.“ whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/theodoreroosevelt
Taft recognized that his techniques would differ from those of his predecessor. Unlike Roosevelt, Taft did not believe in the stretching of Presidential powers. He once commented that Roosevelt "ought more often to have admitted the legal way of reaching the same ends.“ whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhowardtaft

85. Churchill and FDR

86. Bush, Blair, and Iraq

87. Obama and Peña Nieto

88. Obama and Netanyahu

89. Parliamentary System
Presidential System
Legislative Branch
Parliament elected by voters. The majority party in Parliament chooses the prime minister.
Congress elected by voters. Legislative and executive functions are separate.
Chief Executive (Government Head)
Prime minister who heads council of ministers, or "Cabinet"
President, elected by voters, nominates cabinet members.
Head of State
Often a constitutional monarch. Legislatures often choose a ceremonial president, who acts as head of state.
President is head of state.
Elections
Prime minister can call new elections.
Held at fixed intervals.
Political Parties
Often a multiparty system. Government is formed by a ruling coalition of cooperating parties.
Usually a two-party system with third parties holding marginal power.
Examples
Israel, Great Britain, and her former colonies, such as India, Japan.
The United States, Mexico, Nigeria and Brazil.

90. Presidential System Advantages
Separation of Powers/Checks and Balances
Direct Mandate
Executive authority/decisive authority
Stability

91. Presidential System Disadvantages
Independent power can lead to authoritarianism
Separation of Powers/Gridlock
Difficulty in leadership change

92. Prime Minister System Advantages
Quicker Legislative Action
Collective Cabinet Authority—diversity in leadership
Flexibility in Change of Power—votes of no confidence
Resistance to authoritarianism

93. Prime Minister System Disadvantages
Indirect election of prime minister
No separation of powers—executive authority less checked
No single executive—first among equals
One party dominance
Potential instability

94. Are in a better position
to redistribute resources
from richer regions to
poorer regions (thus
creating more equality)