2. Using These Slides
These PowerPoint slides have been designed for use by students and instructors using the Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity textbook by Conrad Kottak. These files contain short outlines of the content of the chapters, as well as selected photographs, maps, and tables. Students may find these outlines useful as a study guide or a tool for review. Instructors may find these files useful as a basis for building their own lecture slides or as handouts. Both audiences will notice that many of the slides contain more text than one would use in a typical oral presentation, but it was felt that it would be better to err on the side of a more complete outline in order to accomplish the goals above. Both audiences should feel free to edit, delete, rearrange, and rework these files to build the best personalized outline, review, lecture, or handout for their needs.

3. Contents of Student CD-ROM
Student CD-ROM—this fully interactive student CD-ROM is packaged free of charge with every new textbook and features the following unique
tools:
How To Ace This Course:
Animated book walk-through
Expert advice on how to succeed in the course (provided on video by the University of Michigan)
Learning styles assessment program
Study skills primer
Internet primer
Guide to electronic research
Chapter-by-Chapter Electronic Study Guide:
Video clip from a University of Michigan lecture on the text chapter
Interactive map exercise
Chapter objectives and outline
Key terms with an audio pronunciation guide
Self-quizzes (multiple choice, true/false, and short-answer questions with feedback indicating why your answer is correct or incorrect)
Critical thinking essay questions
Internet exercises
Vocabulary flashcards
Chapter-related web links
Cool Stuff:
Interactive globe
Study break links

4. Contents of Online Learning Center
Student’s Online Learning Center—this free web-based student supplement features many of the same tools as the Student CD-ROM (so students can access these materials either online or on CD, whichever is convenient), but also includes:
An entirely new self-quiz for each chapter (with feedback, so students can take two pre-tests prior to exams)
Career opportunities
Additional chapter-related readings
Anthropology FAQs
PowerPoint lecture notes
Monthly updates

5. 5 C h a p t e r Primate Evolution
This chapter introduces students to the study of the fossil record using geological techniques. Then it discusses the earliest primate species which lived during the Eocene and Miocene.
C h a p t e r 5

6. The Fossil Record Preservation Finding fossils
The fossil record is not a representative sample of all of the species that have lived on earth.
Some species and body parts preserve better than others.
Taphonomy is the study of the processes that affect the remains of dead animals.
Finding fossils
Fossils are more likely to be found in areas with little vegetation and lots of erosion.
Due to issues regarding the preservation and discovery of fossils, the fossil record of early primates is “limited and spotty.”

7. Dating Concepts
Paleontology is the study of ancient life through the fossil record.
Anthropology and paleontology both are interested in establishing a chronology for primate and human evolution.
Much dating depends upon stratigraphy, which is the study of the sequence of geographical layers.

8. Relative Dating
Relative dating uses the natural layers or strata to establish a relative chronology—material from this layer is older than the material from that layer.
Association with known fossils is the most common method of fossil dating.
Fluorine dating is another relative dating technique, and was used to expose the Piltdown Man hoax.

9. Absolute Dating
Whereas relative dating techniques allow you to say only what is older or younger, absolute dating techniques produce dates in years so differences in age can be quantified.
Radiometric techniques are based on known rates of radioactive decay in elements found in or around fossils.
Examples are: 14C and potassium argon (K/A) dating (both of which are radiometric techniques), thermoluminescence (TL), and electron spin resonance (ESR) (see table 5.1).

10. Absolute Dating Techniques
Abbreviation
Materials Dated
Effective Time Range
Carbon 14
14C
organic materials
up to 40,000 years
Potassium-Argon
K/A and 40K
volcanic rock
older than 500,000 years
Uranium Series
238U
minerals
between 1,000 and 1,000,000
Thermoluminescence TL
rocks and minerals
between 5,000 and 1,000,000 years
Electron Spin Resonance
ESR
between 1,000 and 1,000,000 years

11. Early Primates Arboreal theory
Primates became primates by adapting to life in trees
Enhanced sight (depth perception)
Grasping hands and feet
Visual predation hypothesis (Cartmill 1972, 1992)
Binocular vision, grasping hands and feet, and reduced claws developed because they facilitated the capture of insects.
Early primates first adapted to life in the bushy forest undergrowth and low tree branches.

12. Early Cenozoic Primates
The earliest primates date to the first part of the Cenozoic (65-54 m.y.a.).
The Eocene (54-38 m.y.a.) was the epoch of prosimians with at least 60 different genera in two families.
The omomyid family lived in North America, Europe, and Asia and may be ancestral to all anthropoids.
The adapid family was ancestral to the lemur-loris line.

13. Continents at the end of the Meszoic
Here are the placement of the continents at the end of the Cenozoic and beginning of the Mesozoic, about 65 m.y.a.

14. Omomyid
An artist’s reconstruction of Shoshonius, a member of the Eocene omomyid family.

15. Anthropoids
Anthropoids branched off from the prosimians during the Eocene.
Anthropoid eyes are rotated more forward compared to prosimians.
Anthropoids have a fully enclosed bony eye socket.
Anthropoids have a dry nose separate from the upper lip.
Anthropoids have molar cusps.

16. Oligocene Anthropoids
During the Oligocene (38-23 m.y.a.), anthropoids were the most numerous primates.
The parapithecid family may be ancestral to the New World monkeys.
The propliopithecid family may be ancestral to Old World monkeys, apes, and humans.

17. Proconsul A Miocene Hominoid:
Proconsul was the most abundant anthropoid in the early Miocene.
Its teeth have similarities with modern apes, but below the neck the skeleton is more monkey-like.
Their teeth suggest that they ate fruits and leaves.
Proconsul probably contained the last common ancestor shared by Old World monkeys and the apes.

18. Proconsul
A skull of Procumsul africanus from the Kenya National Museum.

19. Proconsul Proconsul was replaced by monkeys in the late Miocene.
Monkeys probably were superior at eating leaves.
Monkey molars developed lophs which enhanced their ability to chew leaves.
Traits
Primitive traits are those passed on unchanged from an ancestor.
Derived traits are those that develop in a particular taxon after a split from a common ancestor.

20. Afropithecus and Kenyapithecus
Afropithecus is a large slow moving Miocene hominoid with large projecting front teeth from northern Kenya (18-16 m.y.a.)
Recent research suggests that the two species of Kenyapithecus should be reclassified as Equatorius.
Equatorius and Afropithecus are probable stem hominoids, species somewhere on the evolutionary line near the origins of the modern ape group that are too primitive to be considered direct ancestors of living apes and humans.

21. Sivapithecus
Sivapithecus belongs to the ramapithecid genera along with Gigantopithecus.
Sivapithecus is now believed to be ancestral to the modern orangutan.
A Sivapithecus skull.

22. Gigantopithecus
Gigantopithecus is the largest primate that ever lived, some standing over 10 feet tall and weighing 1,200 pounds.
Since it died out around 400,000 years ago, it coexisted with Homo erectus.
Some people believe it is still alive today as the yeti and bigfoot.
A reconstruction of Giganopithecus by Russel Ciochon and Bill Muns.

23. Dryopithecus
Dryopithecus lived in Europe during the middle and late Miocene.
This group probably includes the common ancestor of the lesser apes (gibbons and siamangs) and the great apes.
Dryopithecus has the Y-5 arrangement of molar cusps typical of Dryopithecus and of hominoids.

24. Oreopithecus
Oreopithecus bambolii lived between 9-7 m.y.a and spent much of its time standing upright and shuffling short distances.
Its big toe splayed out 90 degrees from the other toes.

25. A Missing Link?
Kottak refers to the last ancestral population held commonly by humans, gorillas, and chimpanzees as Hogopans (after the genus names of these three).
The lines of the orangutans, gibbons and siamangs having split off several million years earlier, the hominid line almost certainly diverged from those of chimps and gorillas late in the Miocene epoch, between 7 and 5 m.y.a.
Hogopans probably split into the three separate lines leading to gorillas, chimpanzees and humans no more than 8 m.y.a., with each group moving into separate niches: equatorial forest-dwelling and eating bulk vegetation (gorilla), Central African woodland-dwelling frugivores (chimpanzee), and open grassland (hominids).