1. Lubricants

2. Lubricants and lubrication
Lubricant is a substance which when introduced between two moving parts reduces friction by forming a slippery film between the two surfaces and thus improving efficiency and decreasing wear
So, lubrication is the process of reducing friction and wear between two moving surfaces by applying lubricating substances between the parts

3. Friction
Friction is defined as opposing force that is set up between the surfaces of contact, when one body moves or tends to move over the surface of other body.
Sliding or kinetic friction: Friction between two moving/ sliding surfaces
Rolling frictions: Friction due rolling of spherical and cylindrical objects on other surface

4. Principle of lubrication
All material have irregularities in form of peak (asperities) and valleys
When peak of upper surface come in contact with peak of lower surface, these asperities may crush under small load, until the contact area is large enough to support the load and is known as wear
And also when the upper surface and lower surface move against each other that lead to friction which further reduces the efficiency of the machine
Therefore to reduce wear and to reduce friction we use lubricants that increases the efficiency of the machines

5. Purpose/functions of lubrication
To keep moving parts apart: by forming thin layer between the surfaces
To reduce friction: lubricant to surface friction is lesser than surface to surface friction
To protect against wear: lubricant prevent wear by keeping moving part apart
To transfer heat: liquid lubricants are effective in heat circulation due to high specific capacity
To prevent corrosion: as surface of metal do not come in contact with air (Oxygen)
To seal gapes: lubricant seal the space between moving parts through capillary force
To carry away contaminants and debris
Reduces chance of seizure of two moving surfaces
Reduces the maintenance & running cost of machine

6. Mechanism of lubrication: thick film or hydrodynamic lubrication
This also known as fluid film lubricant
If the surface slide over the other lead to increased friction and asperities tend to break leading to wear
An excellent method to prevent this is to use lubricant film to separate the surfaces and is known as hydrodynamic lubrication (hydro= liquid, dynamic = relative motion)
The lubricant film ensure that no wear is possible between moving parts due to reduced friction
The hydrodynamic film is formed when the geometry, motion of moving surface and lubricant viscosity combine to increase the lubricant pressure to support the load as increased pressure forces the surface apart
In hydrodynamic lubrication one surface floats over the other surface and increased fluid pressure forces the surface apart
The four essential elements to consider in hydrodynamic lubrication: liquid (hydro); relative motion (dynamic); viscous properties of liquid and geometry of surfaces

7. The heat generated between moving parts has to be dissipated effectively to decrease the temperature dependence of viscosity
Delicate instruments such as watches, clocks, guns, scientific instruments are provided with hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrocarbons are considered to be best for fluid film lubrication
Other mechanism:
Thin film of boundary lubrication
Extreme pressure lubrication

8. Classification of lubricants
Gaseous lubricants: (lower viscosity, and higher compressibility eg air, steam or liquid metal vapors
Liquid lubricants:
water (used as such or in combination with other oils and used in engineering processes such as milling and lathe turning.
Mineral oil (derived from crude petroleum oil) eg polyalphaolefins, naphthenics, polyalkyleneglycos
Lanolin (derived from sheep wool and are corrosion inhibitor, protection against rust, salt and acid)
Vegetable oil (triglyceride esters, eg castor oil, palm oil, sunflower oil, whale oil etc)

9. Solid lubricants: used under high temperature conditions in form of dry powder
Graphite (planes of polycyclic carbon atom and hexagonal orientation. Higher the carbon atom content and higher the crystallization the better is the lubrication action
Molybdenum disulphide (M0S2) and Tungsten disulphide: hexagonal structure and lubrication performance is better than graphilte, but lubrication is limited to 400 oC as above 400 oC it undergoes degradation
Boron nitride (BN): ceramic powder ( used at high temp. up to oC; exist in tow forms cubic (very hard cant used as lubricant) and hexagonal used for lubrication
Teflon or poly tetrafluoroethane: PTFE does not have layered structure but the molecules slip easily along each other and hence the lubrication is achieved
Mica and chalk
Note MoS2, PTFE and graphite are antifriction, antiwear additives are often mixed with polymers to give self lubrication composites

10. Structure of graphite

11. Molybdenum disulphide
Sandwich structure: Mo atoms lie between 2 layers of S atoms
Poor interlaminar interaction and hence very low friction between layers
Stable in air upto 4000C.
Also used with solvents & greases.
Uses:
Where greases and oils cant be used
Work at high temperature
Combustible lubricants must be avoided.

14. Semisolid lubricants (grease): contain thickening agents like soaps of sodium, calcium or aluminium mixed with mineral oil (80% mineral oil+10% soaps+ 10 % additives)
Grease are named after soap used in manufacture eg
Lithium based grease (water and dust resistance and used up to 15-30oC)
Calcium based grease or cup grease (water resistant and used up to 70oC)
Aluminium based grease(high water and acid resistance and used up to 80oC)
Sodium based grease (sparingly soluble in water and cant be used in wet condition and used up to 120oC)

15. Metal alloys: some metal and alloy can also be used as lubricant or grease additives eg lead, tin, zinc alloys are used in bearings and metal powders are used to lubricate sliding surfaces

16. Cup greases

18. Uses of greases:
Where oils flow away due to heavy load, low speed and sudden jerks.
Where bearings produce high temperature.
Where bearings needs to be sealed due to entry of dust, moisture etc.
Where oil drops spoil the machine.

19. Additives of lubricants
Additives are employed to impart desired characteristics to lubricants and some additive used in lubricant formulation are:
Antioxidants: as at elevated temperature lubricant oil get oxidized or deteriorated so antioxidants are used to reduce the rate of oxidation reaction of oil. Compounds used as antioxidants are alkyl and aromatic sulphides, aromatic amines, zinc dithiophosphate (ZDP) and hindered phenols.
Corrosion Inhibitors: These help by forming a barrier film on the surface of the machine part thus preventing it from the attack of O2, H2O and other chemicals. Materials used to prevent corrosion and rust formation are: esters, carboxylic acid, alkaline compounds and amino acid derivatives.
Viscosity Index Improvers: Viscosity of lubricants decreases with increase in temperature and hence their performance declines. Additives are: acrylate polymers. It makes stable oil film even at high temperature.

20. Properties of lubricants
Viscosity
Flash point
Fire point
Cloud point
Pour point
Aniline point (number)

21. Viscosity
Viscosity is the most important property of lubricants that determines the operating condition under which it is used
Viscosity is the property of fluid which is a measure of its resistance to flow
The steady state of flow of a liquid can be visualized to consist of series of parallel layers moving one above other
The function of lubricating oil is to form a liquid film between two moving or sliding surfaces.
If the viscosity of oil is too low, the resistance to flow between individual layer of lubrication is low and consequently the excessive wear take place
On the other hand if the viscosity is too high resistance to flow between different layers of later is high and friction between layer increases and hence decreases efficiency
Therefore viscosity of lubricant should be optimum according to need

22. Factors affecting viscosity
Temperature: Viscosity of liquid decreases with temperature as the lubricant oil become thinner as operating temperature increases
It is desirable that viscosity of a lubricant should be consistent over a range of temperature so that it can be used at different temperature and we measure it by viscosity index (V.I.), higher the viscosity index, smaller the change with temperature and lower the viscosity index higher will be viscosity change with temperature
Pressure: Viscosity increases with increasing temperature of operating system
Molecular structure: in general an oil with high molecular weight possesses a high boiling point and high viscosity
V.I of the lubricant can be increased by adding certain sparingly soluble polymers, at low temp. polymer is less soluble but at high temp. solubility is high which increases the V.I. of lubricant.

23. Fire and flash points
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the lubricant oil gives off enough vapors to ignite (spark) but not burn when small flame is brought near it
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the vapors of lubricant oil burn continuously at least for 5 seconds when a small flame is brought near it
Flash and fire points determine the volatility and fire resistance of lubricant
Flash point is important in determining shipping, storage, and safety regularity of oil
A drop in flash point shows the presence of volatile impurities in oil
A good lubricant should have higher flash point than the temperature it is used (usually fire point are 8-10% higher than flash points)
Flash and fire points is determined by using PENSKY MARTENS APPARATUS

24. Cloud and pour points
Cloud point: When lubricant is slowly cooled, the temperature at which it become cloudy or hazy in appearance is called its cloud point
Pour point: When the lubricant is slowly cooled, the temperature at which the oil ceases to flow or pour is called pour point
Cloud and pour point indicate the suitability of lubricant in cold conditions
They are also useful in identifying the source of lubricating oil as oil derived from petroleum source contain paraffin wax and other high melting fraction which solidify on cooling
Lubricant used in machine working at lower temperature should posses low pour point to avoid solidification of oil.

25. Cloud Point
Pour Point

26. Aniline Point (number)
Aniline point gives an indication of the possible deterioration of the oil in contact with rubber used in sealing, packing, etc. Aromatic hydrocarbons have the tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic rubber, and hence their low value is desirable in lubricants. The lowest temperature at which equal parts of aniline and sample of oil are completely miscible or the temperature at which the mixture becomes turbid or cloudy. A product with a high aniline point will be low in aromatics .

27. Aniline Point
Aniline point is the minimum equilibrium solution temperature for equal volume of aniline and oil sample.
It is determines by mixing mechanically equal volumes of aniline and oil sample.
A lower aniline point of an oil means a higher percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons in it.
Aromatic hydrocarbons have a tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain types of synthetic rubbers.
Thus good lubricating oil should have high aniline point.

28. Determination of aniline point
Aniline point is determined by mixing mechanically equal volume of oil sample and aniline , the mixture is heated till homogenous solution is obtained then it is allowed to cool, the temperature at which oil and aniline separate out is recorded as aniline value.
The lower the aniline point, the greater is the content of aromatic compounds in the oil as obviously a lower temperature is needed to ensure miscibility.

29. Selection of lubrication
Selection of lubrication depend upon Lubrication properties
System of application and service condition requirement such as type of motion speed, temperature, load and environment
In engineering domain lubricants are selected on basis of tribology (study of friction) and wear, chemical compatibility with machine parts and environmental impact
The most important criteria for selection include the system on which lubricant is applied and service conditions (Application based)

30. Lubricant selection based on application
Lubricants for cutting tools: For this application cutting fluids in combination with lubricant and coolants are used and main functions are
(a) to cool cutting tool edge at appropriate temperature
(b) to cool metal work piece to prevent distortion
(c) to reduce power consumption by lubrication action
(d) preventing rusting of machine parts
For heavy cutting low viscosity mineral oil blended with fatty oils
For light cutting, the emulsion of oil in aqueous soap solution is most effective
For grinding and turning operation water may be used as coolant and lubricant

31. Lubricant for fragile/ delicate equipment: For delicate machines (watches, clocks, scientific equipments which do not operate at high temp. and press. Mild lubricant are required (vegetable or mineral oil)
Lubricant for combustion engines: Lubricant in internal combustion exp0se to high temperature has high temp. Therefore lubricant should posses high thermal stability and viscosity and hence petroleum oils (with additives) which are stable oxidation and temp. are used
Lubricant for gears: gears are subjected to extreme pressure and centrifugal force; require thick viscous lubricants.

32. Lubricant for transformers: Require such type of lubricant which can insulate the winding and carry away the heat generated when it is on load.
Lubricants for refrigeration system: Lubricant should have low cloud and pour point.
Lubricants in food and pharmaceutical industry: Lubricant should be inert, free from contaminations, tasteless and odorless.
Lubricant for different loads and speed
Lubricant for textile industry