2. 15 Mark Questions AO1 (knowledge) = 5 marks AO2 (analysis) = 7 marks
AO3 (communication) = 3 marks
Structure
Brief introduction, 4 key points, brief conclusion
Focus is on analysis. (This involves analysing arguments for and against. Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of arguments/weigh the evidence)

3. 45 Mark Questions AO1 (knowledge) = 12 marks AO2 (analysis) = 12 marks
AO2 (synoptic) = 12 marks
AO3 (communication) = 9 marks
Structure
Ensure you have detailed introduction and conclusion
You must have a clear sustained line of argument
Synoptic Links – This involves referring to key ideologies. You need to identify competing viewpoints/perspectives, and show insight into how they affect the interpretation of political events/issues and shape conclusions.

4. Topic 1: Nationalism

5. 15 Marks

6. Preparing for ‘distinguish’ nationalism 15 mark questions
Distinguish between the nation and the state, and explain why the two are often confused.
Distinguish between a nation and a race, and explain why the two are commonly confused.
Distinguish between nationalism and racialism
Distinguish between political nationalism and cultural nationalism.

7. 1) Distinguish between the nation and the state, and explain why the two are often confused.
Introduction Define each term (see key word sheet)
Point 1 Nations are ultimately defined subjectively by members and can exist with the absence of land (pg 174)
Point 2 In comparison a state is a political reality (extra reading pg ). This means a state can consist of a number of nations.
Point 3 There is much confusion surrounding what a nation is, and in everyday language the words nation and state are often confused, and they are used as if they are interchangeable.
Confusion 1 – Explain the focus of political nationalism (pg 172) Explain that this has led to the creation and dominance of the nation-state, as it has brought the two ideas together (pg 178) Citizenship and nationality therefore now overlap.
Point 4 Confusion 2 - Explain why Patriotism (pg 169) has led to the aspiration to achieve nation-states

8. 2) Distinguish between a nation and a race, and explain why the two are commonly confused.
Introduction Define each term (see key word sheet)
Point 1 Explain that many features, including race, are associated with nationhood (g ) As nations are defined culturally and subjectively by members, they may therefore compose of people who have a wide variety of racial identities.
Point 2 Confusion – many nations consider themselves to be races (extra reading pg 163)
Point 3 Confusion – chauvinist nationalist at its extreme, e.g. fascist movements have combined ideas of race and nation (extra reading pg 163)
Point 4 This has led to a focus on racial purity an national superiority (extra reading pg )

9. 3) Distinguish between nationalism and racialism
Introduction Define each term (see key word sheet)
Point 1 Explain the two assumptions of nationalism (pg 168). This links to political nationalism which sets out to… (pg 168)
Point 2 In comparison explain the assumptions of racialism (pg 215)
Point 3 Explain how the nation can be defined, and that race is only one potential feature (pg 173)
Point 4 Explain how the two have been linked together in extreme cases of chauvinistic nationalism (extra reading pg 178)

10. 4) Distinguish between political nationalism and cultural nationalism.
Introduction Define each term (see key word sheet)
Point 1 Political nationalism focuses on self determination and the creation of the nation state (pg 178) (Link to Rousseau)
Point 2 In contrast cultural nationalism focuses on strengthening cultural identity (pg ) (Link to Herder)
Point 3 Rational and progressive vs mystical and bottom up (pg 179)
Point 4 Political nationalism is inclusive and ‘open’, while cultural nationalism is exclusive or ‘closed’ (pg 181)
(Add that political nationalism links to liberal nationalism, while cultural nationalism links more to conservative and chauvinist nationalism)

11. 5) Distinguish between nationalism and patriotism, and explain why the two are often confused
Introduction - Briefly define each term (see key word sheet)
Point 1 - Explain the key assumptions of nationalism (pg 168)
Point 2 - In comparison patriotism is an emotional attachment to a nation. It is a love or devotion to your nation. It can sometimes lead to a willingness to make sacrifices for your nation, e.g. fighting on behalf of your nation in a war.
Key point: Not all patriots are nationalists. Not all those who love their nation see it as a means through which political demands should be articulated.
Point 3 - Confusion 1) Patriotism underpins nationalism (pg 169)
Point 4 - Confusion 2) Intense patriotism is linked to chauvinist/expansionist nationalism (para 2 pg 189)

12. Exam Question Preparation
Remaining 15 mark questions to prepare for:
On what grounds have nationalists defended the nation- state?/Why and how have nationalists viewed the nation- state as a political ideal?
On what grounds have nationalists upheld the principle of national self-determination?
Explain the key features of liberal nationalism
Explain the key features of conservative nationalism
Why have liberals argued that nationalism promotes peace and international order?

13. 1) On what grounds have nationalists defended the nation-state
1) On what grounds have nationalists defended the nation-state?/Why and how have nationalists viewed the nation-state as a political ideal?
Introduction - Define nation-state
Key points:
Provides cultural cohesion and political unity (pg 179)
Legitimises government and provides political freedom to people (pg 179)
Liberal nationalist defence of nation state; focuses on self government and self determination (pg 183)
Conservative defence of nation-state; focuses on providing cohesion and public order & maintaining tradition (pg 186)
Brief Conclusion

14. 2) On what grounds have nationalists upheld the principle of national self-determination?
Introduction – define self-determination and explain that it is core principle of political nationalism
Explain how it links to Rousseau’s view of the general will (pg 178)
It provides political independence, by linking nationhood & statehood together, as the ultimate aim is the founding of nation state (pg 178)
Liberal nationalists have focused on self determination, and see it as a way of establishing a peaceful and stable international order (pg 183)
Nationalists believe it can be achieved through unification and independence (pg 178)
Brief Conclusion

15. 3) Explain the key features of liberal nationalism
Introduction – define liberal nationalism
Shaped by Rousseau’s idea of popular sovereignty (pg 182 & pg178)
Link to individualism – nations as sovereign entities & focus on self determination (pg 183)
Nationalism a way of establishing a peaceful international order (pg 183)
Fear of international state of nature (pg )
Brief Conclusion

16. 4) Explain the key features of conservative nationalism
Introduction – define conservative nationalism
Tends to develop in established nation states (pg 186)
Focus on social cohesion and public order embodied in sentiment of patriotism (pg 186)
Link to tradition (pg 186)
Can be exclusive – refer to view on immigration & supranationalism (pg 187)
Brief Conclusion

17. 5) Why have liberals argued that nationalism promotes peace and international order?
Introduction – define liberal nationalism
Autocratic empires were a threat to peace & led to First World War (pg 183)
In comparison national self determination leads to peace and a stable international order (pg 183)
Nation states are sovereign and entitled to liberty & would not threaten independence of another nation (pg 183)
International organisations & national interdependence make warfare an impossibility (pg 184)
Brief Conclusion

18. 45 Marks

19. 45 marks on Nationalism
Question Type 1 – Does nationalism lead to conflict and violence?
Does nationalism inevitably breed rivalry and conflict and war?
‘Nationalism is inherently expansionist and aggressive.’ Discuss
‘Nationalism is a recipe for peace and international order.’ Discuss
Question Type 2 – backward or forward looking?
To what extent is nationalism a backward-looking ideology?
To what extent is nationalism a forward-looking doctrine?
Question Type 3 – is nationalism a unified ideology?
To what extent is nationalism a single doctrine

20. Question Type 1 – Does nationalism lead to conflict and violence?
Introduction – explain that nationalism has a variety of contrasting manifestations, some of which breed conflict because of their tendency towards expansionism and destruction. Others, however are dedicated to peaceful co- existence
Supporting Arguments
Counter Arguments
Chauvinistic Nationalism
An aggressive & militaristic form – linked to WWI & WW2 (pg 171)
Focuses on superiority (pg 188)
Example of German nationalism (pg 189)
Breeds intense patriotism which links to militarism (pg 189)
Link to negative integration – creates ‘them’ and ‘us’
Liberal nationalism
Rejects expansionism & destruction
Focus is on self government & self determination. Opposes oppression(pg 183)
Equal nations – respecting each others rights (pg 183)
International organisations & national interdependence help protect against conflict (pg ).

21. Question Type 1 – Does nationalism lead to conflict and violence?
Supporting Arguments
Counter Arguments
Conservative Nationalism
Focus on national pride leads to desire for powerful state (pg 186)
Focus on defence of national identity. This causes outsiders to be seen as a threat (pg )
Anti-colonial nationalism
Not expansionist and links to liberal believe in self-determination (pg 192)
Example Gandhi – non-violent protest
Anti colonial – is not expansionist, but does justify violence – e.g. Franz Fanon
Liberal – in exceptional cases military intervention justified to protect rights
Link main points to the key thinkers for each perspective
Conclusion – sum up the contrasting views & justify a line of argument

22. Question Type 2 – backward or forward looking?
Introduction – explain that nationalism has a variety of contrasting manifestations, some of which have a backward looking character, while others are forward looking
Backward Looking
Forward Looking
Conservative Nationalism
Appeals to history & tradition (pg 186)
Links to cultural nationalism – which focuses on importance of traditions & collective memories (pg 180)
Links to primordial approach – that nationality is historically embedded. Nations held together by past experiences.
Liberal nationalism
Focus is on nations achieving self government & self determination (political nationalism) (pg 183)
Focus on replacing old world order replaced with nation-states (pg 183)
E.g. Woodrow Wilson encouraging creation of nation states after WWI (pg 183)
E.g. Rousseau’s ideas shaped French Revolution (pg 178)

23. Question Type 2 – backward or forward looking?
Backward Looking
Forward Looking
Chauvinistic Nationalism
Often rooted in image of a past ‘golden age’ which nationalists seek to regain.
E.g. Mussolini looked back to glory of Roman Empire
E.g. history of German nationalism
Anti-colonial nationalism
Focus is on national liberation – both politically & economically (pg 193)
Often socialist link – focus on removing oppression (pg 193)
A defining feature of all nations is a shared history – suggesting that all nations are backwards looking to some extent.
Chauvinist nationalism - may have forward looking goals – e.g. imperial expansion, e.g. Nazis desire for Aryan world domination
Link main points to the key thinkers for each perspective
Conclusion – sum up the contrasting views & justify a line of argument

24. Question Type 3 – is nationalism a unified ideology?
Introduction – explain that nationalism has a variety of contrasting manifestations & that it draws on a range of other ideological traditions. Despite this there are some shared values
Unified Arguments
Divided Arguments
Belief in the nation (pg 173)
The core theme that all forms of nationalism reflect is the belief that the nation is the sole legitimate unit of political rule.
The nation is the key to political organisation
Compare the focus of the four political approaches:
Liberal
Anti-colonial
Conservative
Chauvinistic
Make direct comparisons between the approaches – e.g.:
Inclusive vs exclusive (link to view of immigration & supranationalism)
Forward looking vs backward looking
Peaceful vs aggressive
Focus on political nationalism vs. focus on cultural nationalism
(other 2 values – sself determination and culturalism – can’t really use as one describes cultural and the the other describes political
Liberal - focus on self determinations equal nations, international order
Anti-colonial – focus on national liberation
Conservative – focus on order, tradition, sceptical of immigration
Chauvinistic – aggressive & militaristic. Can like to racialism & fascism.

25. Question Type 3 – is nationalism a unified ideology?
Unified Arguments
Divided Arguments
Belief that nations are organic communities
Naturally divided & with distinct characters (pg 176)
The existence of different types of nationalism adds to the confusion
Compare political, civic, cultural & ethnic nationalism (pg 172,176)
Compare Rousseau’s view (pg 178) with Herder’s view (Political vs. Cultural) (pg 180)
Link main points to the key thinkers for each perspective
Conclusion– – sum up the contrasting views & justify a line of argument. Nationalism is a single doctrine only in a relatively limited sense.

26. Topic 2: Feminism

27. 15 Marks

28. 15 marks linking to core values
Explain the importance of the distinction between sex and gender for feminist analysis
How and why have feminists been critical of the ‘public/private’ divide?
Explain the difference between androgyny and essentialism within feminism.
Why have some feminists criticised the idea of gender equality?
Define patriarchy, and explain its importance to feminist analysis.

29. 1) Explain the importance of the distinction between sex and gender for feminist analysis
Introduction – explain that feminists distinguish between sex and gender & sum up the difference between the two.
Feminists challenge anti-feminist argument that gender roles are ‘natural’. Instead they are cultural (pg 233)
Patriarchal ideas have blurred distinction, but this is not necessary (pg 233)
Most feminists see human nature as androgynous (pg )
This distinction allows for social change (pg 234)
Brief conclusion

30. 2) How and why have feminists been critical of the ‘public/private’ divide?
Introduction – sum up the difference between the public & private sphere, and how this has traditionally divided men and women.
Modern feminists argue that distinction should not be made, & ‘the political’ should be redefined (pg 230).
Public/private divide causes sexual inequality & should be challenged (pg 230)
Feminists disagree on the public/private divide. (Compare radical, socialist & liberal views)
Brief conclusion

31. 3) Explain the difference between androgyny and essentialism within feminism.
Introduction – briefly define each term.
Androgyny is used to suggest that sex differences have no significance (pg )
This view means genderless ‘personhood’ is achievable (pg 234). Androgyny can therefore be linked to equality feminism
Essentialism in contrast views that sex differences can impact social & cultural characteristics (pg 233 & pg 236)
Essentialism can be linked to difference feminism (pg 234). Equality is not desirable & some adopt a ‘pro-woman’ position (pg 236)
Brief conclusion

32. 4) Why have some feminists criticised the idea of gender equality?
Introduction – explain what is meant by gender equality
Difference feminists criticise the idea of gender equality on a number of grounds
Critique of androgyny & belief in essentialism (pg 234)
Equality is misguided & undesirable (pg 236)
Liberation means fulfilment as a woman, rather than being ‘like men’ (pg 236)
Focus should be on ‘pro woman’ feminism & cultural feminism rather than gender equality (pg 236)
Brief conclusion

33. 5) Define patriarchy, and explain its importance to feminist analysis.
Introduction – briefly define patriarchy & why important to feminists
Term used to describe power relationship between men & women (pg 231)
Many feminists use in broader sense, linking to all institutions (pg 231)
Explain how liberal, socialist & radical feminists analyse the term differently (pg 232)
Brief conclusion

34. Remaining 15 Mark Questions
Explain the key features of liberal feminism/Explain the link between feminism and liberalism.
In what sense have radical feminists sought to redefine the nature of politics?/ On what grounds have radical feminists claimed that the ‘personal is the political’?
Explain the key features of socialist feminism
On what grounds has feminism been criticised?

35. 1) Explain the key features of liberal feminism (15 marks)
Introduction – explain that feminism is divided into different traditions. Liberal feminism influenced both first and second wave feminism.
Individualism (pg )
Gradual reform rather than revolution (pg 239)
Focus on public sphere (education, equal legal & political rights) (pg 239)
Private sphere viewed as natural rather than political (pg 239)

36. 2) In what sense have radical feminists sought to redefine the nature of politics?/ On what grounds have radical feminists claimed that the ‘personal is the political’?
Introduction – explain that feminism is divided into different traditions. Radical feminism emerged in the 1960s & 1970s
Radical feminists question the traditional notion that politics is located in the public sphere. They use a wider definition of politics (refer to Kate Millett’s view) (pg 230).
Radical feminists seek to break down the public/private divide, seeing oppression as originating in the family (pg )
Patriarchy is a system of political oppression which pervades all areas of society (pg 242)
Liberation therefore requires a sexual revolution

37. 3) Explain the key features of socialist feminism
Introduction – explain that feminism is divided into different traditions. Socialist feminism became prominent in second half of 20th century
Patriarchy can only be understood in light of social & economic factors (Refer to Engels’ view of capitalism) (pg 240)
Sexual division of labour serves interests of capitalism in a number of ways – e.g. by creating a ‘reserve army of labour’ (pg 241)
Also by relieving men of the burden of housework and childrearing & by giving men an incentive to work (pg 241)
Women’s emancipation to be achieved by radical social change – abolition of capitalism (pg 241)

38. 4) On what grounds has feminism been criticised? (June 2016)
Explain how conservatives criticise feminism – men & women have naturally different roles. Feminism undermines the family & leads to family breakdown
Explain how liberals criticise radical & socialist feminism – e.g. undermines the individual, in private sphere you should be free to make own choice
Explain how radical socialists criticise feminism – focusing on gender rather than class conflict, which undermines social change.
Post feminist perspective – feminism is no longer needed in the West.

39. 45 Marks

40. 45 marks on Feminism
Question Type 1 – extent to which feminists are unified?
To what extent is feminism a single doctrine?
‘Feminism is characterised more by disagreement than by agreement.’ Discuss.
‘Radical feminists fundamentally oppose the principles of liberal feminism’. Discuss
‘Feminism is defined by the belief that “the personal is the political”.’ Discuss
To what extent is feminism defined by the quest for gender equality?
Question Type 2 – is feminism compatible with other ideologies?
To what extent is feminism compatible with other political ideologies?

41. Question Type 1 – To what extent are feminists unified?
Introduction – summarise the different manifestations of feminism. Present line of argument
Unified Arguments
Divided Arguments
All feminists are united:
United in basic assumptions – that all feminists believe that women are disadvantaged & that disadvantages should be overthrown. Feminists therefore wish to advance the role of women in society (pg 226)
Feminists focus on patriarchy & argue that this should be challenged (pg )
Almost all feminists seek equality (all liberal & socialist feminists & most radical feminists) (pg 235), & believe that sex differences are minor & human nature is androgynous (pg 233)
Evidence main three types are divided:
Explain how feminists are divided on the public/private divide (pg )
Feminists analyse patriarchy differently (pg 232)
Feminists have contrasting ideas of equality (compare liberal, socialist & radical views) (pg )
Reform vs. revolution. Liberals favour reform, whereas socialists favour social revolution & radicals a sexual revolution.

42. Question Type 1 – To what extent are feminists unified?
Unified Arguments
Divided Arguments
Similarities between socialist & radical feminism:
Both focus on the private sphere being political (pg 231) (whereas liberals focus only on the public)
Both have a revolutionary character (pg 241 & pg 243)
Major differences between liberal feminism and radical feminism:
Liberal feminism focuses on the public realm & rejects politicising the private sphere (pg 231,239). While radical feminism focuses on challenging the private sphere (pg )
Liberal feminism is rooted in individualism, and supports reformism (pg ). Whereas radical focuses on sisterhood & sexual revolution
Radical feminism believes that patriarchy is rooted in the structures of personal family life, that gender is the deepest divide in society (pg ). Whereas liberals focus on patriarchy in public life (pg 232)
Socialist feminism differs from both liberal and radical feminism:
Socialist feminism believes that patriarchy and capitalism are linked, viewing female oppression in largely economic terms. (pg )
Socialists themselves are divided on importance of gender vs. class (compare orthodox & modern view pg 241)
Conclusion – sum up the contrasting views & justify a line of argument

43. Question Type 1 – To what extent are feminists unified?
Divided Arguments
Significant differences exist between egalitarian feminists (which includes all liberal and socialist feminists and many radical feminists), and difference feminists:
Equality feminists are unified in viewing differences in a negative light (pg )
Equality feminists argue that sex differences are minor & human nature is androgynous (pg 233)
Difference feminists are critical of the pursuit of gender equality (pg 236).
Difference feminists believe in essentialism (pg 234) and adopt a pro woman position (pg 236)
A range of new feminist traditions have developed since the 1980s:
Sum up third wave feminism and how different to traditional forms
Top tip: Link your points to key thinkers whenever possible
Conclusion – sum up the contrasting views & justify a line of argument

44. Task – label/highlight which points could be brought into C,D & E
45 marks on Feminism
Question Type 1 – extent to which feminists are unified?
To what extent is feminism a single doctrine?
‘Feminism is characterised more by disagreement than by agreement.’ Discuss.
‘Radical feminists fundamentally oppose the principles of liberal feminism’. Discuss
‘Feminism is defined by the belief that “the personal is the political”.’ Discuss
To what extent is feminism defined by the quest for gender equality?
In the exam you need to choose which points are most relevant to the specific question that you get.
Task – label/highlight which points could be brought into C,D & E

45. Question Type 2 – Is feminism compatible with other ideologies?
Introduction – summarise the different manifestations of feminism & their roots. Present line of argument
Compatible Arguments
Incompatible Arguments
Compatible with liberalism:
Focus on individualism (pg 238)
Focus on equal rights (pg )
Focus on reform (pg 239)
Radical feminism challenges the idea that feminism is compatible with other ideologies:
Gender seen as the deepest social & political cleavage, something that no other ideology has accepted or can accept (pg 242).
Patriarchal oppression can only be overthrown by a sexual revolution in which the structures of family, personal and domestic life are overthrown and replaced (pg 243).
Radicals criticise liberals for focusing on individualism rather than sisterhood, reform rather than revolution, and its concern to uphold the public-private divide rather than to overthrow it. (pg )
Radicals criticise socialist feminism for being more concerned about the ‘class war’ than the ‘sex war’ (pg 241)

46. Question Type 2 – is feminism compatible with other ideologies?
Compatible Arguments
Incompatible Arguments
Compatible with socialism:
Focus on social and economic structure (pg 240)
Focus on capitalism and exploitation (pg 240)
Traditional family serves interests of capitalism (pg 241)
Marxist feminists focus on primacy of class (pg 241)
Conservatism & feminism can be seen as incompatible:
Sum up the traditional conservative view and why incompatible with feminism
Top tip: Link your points to the key thinkers whenever possible
Conclusion – sum up the contrasting views & justify a line of argument

47. Topic 3: Ecologism

48. 15 Marks

49. 15 marks linking to core themes of Ecologism
Have ecologists revised conventional notions of morality?/How and why have ecologists challenged conventional moral thinking?
Distinguish between anthropocentrism and ecocentrism.
How and why have ecologists supported the principle of sustainability?
Why and how have ecologists criticised materialism and consumerism?
How and why have ecologists shown a concern about future generations?

50. 1) Have ecologists revised conventional notions of morality
1) Have ecologists revised conventional notions of morality?/How and why have ecologists challenged conventional moral thinking?
Introduction – define ecologism and emphasise that ecologists have challenged notions of morality in a number of ways.
Ecologists challenge conventional anthropocentric views that the human is master (pg 263), and replace with ecocentrism ( )
Ecologists challenge focus on the present, and focus on moral rights of future generations (pg 264)
Challenge speciesism and instead promote animal rights (pg 264)
Deep ecologists revise morality further by arguing nature has value in its own right (pg 265)
Brief conclusion

51. 2) Distinguish between anthropocentrism and ecocentrism.
Introduction – briefly define both key terms
Anthropocentrism links to conventional political ideologies & focuses on the needs of human beings (pg 263).
‘Shallow’ ecology can link to anthropocentrism & is seen as ‘light’ anthropocentrism (pg 255, 257)
Ecocentrism links to the idea that nature has value in its own right (pg 265)
Ecocentrism is most embraced by ‘deep’ ecology (pg 257)
Brief conclusion

52. 3) How and why have ecologists supported the principle of sustainability?
Introduction – define sustainability
The Earth as a spaceship (‘closed’ system)– with finite resources (pg )
Focus on reduction in use of fossil fuels & renewable energy (pg 262)
Modern/shallow ecologists support weak sustainability (pg )
Deep and social ecologists support strong sustainability (pg 263)
Brief conclusion

53. 4) Why and how have ecologists criticised materialism and consumerism?
Introduction – define materialism & consumerism (pg 265)
Criticised for undermining psychological & emotional well being (pg 265)
Criticised for leading to environmental degradation (pg 265)
Ecologists favour a postmaterial outlook, rejecting material acquisition (pg 266)
They promote a focus on ‘being’ rather than ‘having’ (pg )
Brief conclusion

54. 5) How and why have ecologists shown a concern about future generations?
Introduction – define futurity & emphasise that this is important concept for ecologists
Seen as a ‘natural duty’ (pg 264)
Links to the belief in ‘ecological stewardship’ (pg 264)
This leads to a focus on sustainability & sustainable energy policy (pg 262)
This leads to a rejection of materialism & a focus on postmaterrial ideas
Brief conclusion

55. Remaining 15 marks on ecologism
Explain the link between ecologism and anarchism/Explain the key ideas of eco- anarchism
On what grounds have some ecologists supported capitalism?
Explain the key ideas of eco-feminism
Explain the key ideas of eco-socialism

56. 1) Explain the link between ecologism and anarchism/Explain the key ideas of eco-anarchism
Introduction – Eco-anarchism is a major school of environmental thought, and is a type of social ecology.
Explain that anarchism is a type of social ecology (pg 269)
Belief in balance & harmony, and rejection of authority (pg 271)
Belief in decentralisation (pg 271)
Rejection of materialism and consumerism, & focus instead on postmaterialism (pg 266)
Brief conclusion

57. 2) On what grounds have some ecologists supported capitalism?
Introduction – define green capitalism
Modernist ecology, influenced by conservatism has embraced the market (pg 269)
The market can respond to pressures (pg 269)
Capitalism can link to sustainable development (pg 269)
Explain why most ecologists support managed capitalism (pg 269)
Brief conclusion

58. 3) Explain the key ideas of eco-feminism
Introduction –ecofeminism is a major school of environmental thought, and is a type of social ecology.
Belief that ecological destruction has origins in patriarchy (pg 272)
Explain the view of equality feminists (androgynous view) (pg 272)
Explain the view of difference feminists (essentialism) (pg )
Explain the view that women are closer to nature than men. Patriarchy therefore needs to be removed, and a new relationship formed. (pg 274)
Brief conclusion

59. 4) Explain the key ideas of eco-socialism
Introduction – Eco-socialism is a major school of environmental thought, and is a type of social ecology.
Criticism of capitalism (pg 270
View of private property & belief that radical change necessary (pg 270)
Tension between ‘red’ and ‘green’ priorities (pg 270)
Belief that socialism is naturally ecological (pg 270)
Brief conclusion

60. 45 Marks

61. 45 Marks on Ecologism Type 1 – To what extent is ecologism radical?
‘Ecology implies a radically different relationship between humankind and the natural world.’ Discuss
To what extent do ecologists go beyond conventional moral thinking?
‘The goals of ecologism can only be achieved through radical social change.’ Discuss.
Type 2 – To what extent is ecologism unified as an ideology?
To what extent is ecologism a single doctrine?
‘Deep ecology lies at the heart of all ecological thinking.’ Discuss.
Type 3 – are anthropocentrism and ecologism compatible?
‘Ecologism begins where anthropocentrism ends.’ Discuss
‘Ecologists reject the idea that human needs and interests are of overriding importance.’ Discuss
‘Ecologism is fundamentally at odds with capitalism and its values.’ Discuss

62. Type 1 – To what extent is ecologism radical?
Introduction - Define key terms. Summarise the different manifestations of ecologism. Present line of argument
Supporting Arguments – ecologism is radical
Counter Arguments – ecologism is not radical
Deep Ecology:
Belief that anthropocentrism & ecologism are incompatible (pg 275). This means that a radically different relationship is needed between humankind & the natural world.
Belief in biocentric equality & a new metaphysics (pg 275)
Rejection of economic growth & materialism (pg 265) (e.g. Schumacher Buddhist economics pg 262). Believe instead in strong sustainability (pg 263) & simple living (pg ) & self realisation (pg 267)
View on population control (pg 276) (e.g. Garrett Hardin’s view)
Rejection of mechanistic/atomistic world view & desire for a paradigm change (pg ). Key point - deep ecologists argue that radical social change is misguided. A paradigm change is required (a change in people’s philosophical, moral and psycho-emotional relationship with nature). Social change cannot bring ecological consciousness into existence.
Shallow ecology:
Explain focus on reform (pg 267) & belief in policy solutions (pg 262)
Belief in sustainable development & weak sustainability (pg 268 & )
Links to established liberal ideas of self realisation & developmental individualism (pg 268)
Compatible with capitalism - embraces Green capitalism & market based solutions (pg )

63. Type 1 – To what extent is ecologism radical?
Supporting Arguments – ecologism is radical
Counter Arguments – ecologism is not radical
Social Ecology
Also support strong sustainability to varying extents (pg 263)
Focuses on radical social change (pg 269):
Eco-socialists believe the cause of environmental degradation is capitalism & only its overthrow and replacement by socialism can reorder the relationship between humankind and nature. (pg )
Eco-anarchists argue that the state and centralised power are the principal threats to ecological balance and so believe that only within a stateless society, characterised by self-managing communities, can nature be properly protected. (pg 271)
Eco-feminists argue that patriarchy is the cause of environmental degradation, in which case only the construction of a post-patriarchal society will reorder the relationship between humankind and nature. (pg 271)
Social ecology is still anthropocentric:
Social ecology is still based on anthropocentrism. The focus is on social change rather than a paradigm shift. They still give ethical priority to human needs and ends.
Explain how eco-socialism, eco-anarchism & eco-feminism are human focused.
Reactionary ecology:
Explain the conservative nostalgic view (pg 268)
Explain the authoritarian view (see key approaches worksheet or powerpoint slide)
Conclusion - sum up the contrasting views & justify your line of argument

64. Type 2 – To what extent is ecologism unified as an ideology?
Introduction - Define key terms. Summarise the different manifestations of ecologism. Present line of argument
Supporting arguments – Ecologism is unified:
Counter arguments – Ecologism is not unified
All ecologists show a concern about environmental degradation and are committed to reversing or eradicating it. All question anthropocentrism (although to varying degrees)
Belief in ecology & that nature is an interconnected delicate network (pg 254).
Belief in holism (pg 258 para 2) (although shallow ecologists believe in limited holism & deep ecologists focus on radical holism)
Focus on sustainability & criticism of industrialism (pg 260, 262)
Belief in extending moral thinking – futurism (pg 263)
Deep vs. shallow:
Anthropocentrism vs. eco centrism - Division on ecology between ‘shallow’ and ‘deep’ perspectives (pg 255,257)
Sustainability – shallow ecologists advocate weak sustainability & deep ecologists advocate strong sustainability (pg )
Deep ecologists take environmental ethics much further & argue nature has value in its own right (pg 265)
Shallow ecologists support reform & capitalism (pg ). Whereas deep ecologists reject economic growth & materialism (pg 265) (e.g. Schumacher Buddhist economics pg 262). They believe instead in simple living (pg 276) & self realisation (pg 267)
Explain how deep ecologists criticise shallow ecologists (pg 268). Explain how shallow ecologists criticise deep ecologists (pg 277).

65. Type 2 – To what extent is ecologism unified as an ideology?
Supporting arguments – Ecologism is unified:
Counter arguments – Ecologism is not unified
Social ecologists are critical of both shallow & deep ecology (pg 277) & argue that ecological goals cannot be achieved without radical social change.
Moreover each branch of social ecology has a different goal:
Summarise the differences between eco-socialism, eco-anarchism & eco-feminism (pg 274)
Reactionary ecologism is also completely different to the other perspectives:
Explain the backwards looking nature (which contrasts with the forward looking nature of the other perspectives)
Conclusion - sum up the contrasting views & justify your line of argument

66. Type 3 – are anthropocentrism and ecologism compatible?
Introduction - Define key terms. Summarise the different manifestations of ecologism. Present line of argument
Supporting arguments – anthropocentrism & ecologism are compatible:
Counter arguments – anthropocentrism & ecologism are not compatible:
Shallow ecology:
This is a type of humanist ecology which focuses on reform, limits to growth & sustainable development (pg )
Links to liberal ideas of self realisation & developmental individualism (pg 268)
Embraces Green capitalism & market based solutions (pg )
Capitalism is seen as supporting ecologism in 2 ways – market pressures & long term profitability (pg 269)
Shallow ecologists argue ecologism cannot be divorced from anthropocentrism because morality is a human construct (pg 277)
Deep ecology:
Belief that anthropocentrism & ecologism are incompatible (pg 275). This means that a radically different relationship is needed between humankind & the natural world.
Belief in biocentric equality & a new metaphysics (pg 275)
Rejection of economic growth & materialism (pg 265) (e.g. Schumacher Buddhist economics pg 262). Believe instead in strong sustainability (pg 263) & simple living (pg ) & self realisation (pg 267)
View on population control (pg 276) (e.g. Garrett Hardin’s view)
Rejection of mechanistic world view & desire for a paradigm change (pg ). (paradigm change = a change in people’s philosophical, moral and psycho-emotional relationship with nature.)

67. Type 3 – are anthropocentrism and ecologism compatible?
Supporting arguments – anthropocentrism & ecologism are compatible:
Counter arguments – anthropocentrism & ecologism are not compatible:
Social ecology is also anthropocentric:
Social ecology is still based on anthropocentrism. The focus is on social change rather than a paradigm shift. They still give ethical priority to human needs and ends.
Explain how eco-socialism, eco-anarchism & eco-feminism are human focused.
Ecosocialism – explain their view that capitalism & private property have caused the environmental crisis. They reject ‘green capitalism’. (pg 270)
Reactionary ecology is also anthropocentric:
Explain how the conservative nostalgic view is human focused (pg 268)
Explain how the authoritarian view is human focused (see key approaches worksheet or powerpoint slide)
Conclusion - sum up the contrasting views & justify your line of argument

68. Topic 4: Multiculturalism

69. 15 Marks

70. 15 marks linking to Multiculturalism Core Themes
On what grounds have multiculturalists defended/supported the idea of minority rights?
On what grounds do multiculturalists defend diversity?/On what grounds have some multiculturalists supported cultural mixing?
In what sense is multiculturalism a form of communitarianism?
Why is multiculturalism often viewed as a form of identity politics/ Explain the link between multiculturalism and identity politics.

71. 1) On what grounds have multiculturalists defended/supported the idea of minority rights?
Introduction – define minority rights (pg 321 para 2) & explain that this is a core theme of multiculturalism
Key points:
Guarantee of freedom & autonomy (pg 321)
A way of countering oppression (pg 321)
A way of preventing offence (pg 321)
Redressing social injustice (pg 322)

72. 2) On what grounds do multiculturalists defend diversity
2) On what grounds do multiculturalists defend diversity?/ On what grounds have some multiculturalists supported cultural mixing?
Introduction – define diversity & explain that this is a core theme of multiculturalism
Key points:
Provides political stability & prevents extremism (pg 323)
Provides sense of cultural identity & belonging, & creates vibrant society (pg 324)
Allows for cultural exchange & creates tolerance (pg 324)
Allows individual identity to flourish & develop (pg 324)

73. 3) In what sense is multiculturalism a form of communitarianism?
Introduction – define communitarianism (pg 135 & pg 317)
Key points:
Rejection of liberal universalism view of individualism (pg 319)
Focus on particularism & distinctive groups (pg 319)
Belief that people cannot be understood outside society (pg 319)
Belief that group provides sense of identity (pg 319)

74. 4) Why is multiculturalism often viewed as a form of identity politics/ Explain the link between multiculturalism and identity politics.
Introduction – explain what is meant by identity politics (pg 320)
Key points:
Critique of liberal universalism (pg 319)
Belief that identity can be source of empowerment (pg 319)
This links to multicultural focus on ‘politics of recognition’ & celebration of difference (pg 316)
Also links to rejection of western dominance (pg )

75. Remaining 15 Marks on Multiculturalism:
Why have some multiculturalists criticised liberalism?
On what grounds have liberals criticised multiculturalism?
Explain the link between multiculturalism and liberalism
Why have conservatives had reservations about multiculturalism?/On what grounds have conservatives criticised multiculturalism?

76. 1. Why have some multiculturalists criticised liberalism?
2. On what grounds have liberals criticised multiculturalism?
Explain why pluralists would criticise the following liberal views:
Belief that toleration cannot be extended to ‘intolerant’ practices. (pg 325)
Belief in universal values – freedom, democracy, liberty (pg 326)
Belief that citizenship is more important than cultural identity in public sphere (pg )
Belief in liberal democracy as only legitimate form of government (pg 326)
Universalist liberals criticise MC on the following grounds:
Threat to individualism (pg 332)
Legitimises anti-democratic and oppressive ideas (pg 333). This goes against universal values of toleration, liberty & democracy.
Even liberal multiculturalists would criticise the pluralist belief in value pluralism (pg 326)
Explain why liberal MC is against deep diversity (pg 325)

77. 3. Explain the link between multiculturalism and liberalism
Introduction – explain that liberal MC emerged in 1970s
Liberal ideas have provided a strong basis for endorsing cultural diversity:
Liberals have supported toleration (pg 325)
Liberals claim to be ‘neutral’ in allowing people to make life choices (pg 325)
Liberals believe that the state should not intervene in the private sphere (pg 325
Liberal democracy allows diversity to flourish (pg 326)

78. 4. Why have conservatives had reservations about multiculturalism
4. Why have conservatives had reservations about multiculturalism?/On what grounds have conservatives criticised multiculturalism?
Key points:
Undermines cohesiveness (pg 333)
Threatens delicate balance of organic society (extra reading pg 37)
MC inevitably flawed & leads to conflict (pg 333)
Undermines host population (pg 333)

79. 45 Marks

80. 45 Marks on Multiculturalism
Type 1 – are Multiculturalism and liberalism compatible?
To what extent is multiculturalism compatible with liberalism?
To what extent does multiculturalism go beyond liberalism?
Type 2 – does Multiculturalism lead to tension or unity?
‘Multiculturalism breeds tension and social conflict.’ Discuss.
To what extent can multiculturalism be reconciled with national unity and cohesion?
‘Multiculturalism promotes cultural mixing rather than cultural separateness’. Discuss
‘Multiculturalism is redundant’. Discuss
Type 3 – to what extent are multiculturalists unified?
To what extent is multiculturalism a single doctrine?
To what extent do multiculturalists support diversity and the politics of difference?

81. Type 1 – are Multiculturalism and liberalism compatible?
Introduction – define key terms. Explain different types of MC, and why liberalism has had a difficult relationship with multiculturalism (pg 325). Present line of argument
Supporting arguments – compatible with liberalism
Counter arguments – incompatible with liberalism
Liberal Multiculturalism argue the ideas are compatible:
Since 1970s Liberal multiculturalism has emerged & focus has been placed on diversity (pg 325). Key aspects of this approach are compatible with MC:
Belief in toleration & freedom of choice (pg 325)
Liberals justify minority rights as way of guaranteeing freedom (pg 321)
‘Difference blind’ approach (pg 325). This means that liberals advance formal equality (pg 315)
Focus on distinction between ‘private’ and ‘public’ allows multiculturalism to be compatible with civic unity (pg 325)
Pluralist MC criticises liberalism on the following grounds:
Liberals view of toleration is not morally neutral & deep diversity cannot be embraced (pg 325). Instead value pluralism should be embraced (pg 326)
Liberals believe liberal democracy is only viable system (pg 326). Instead Western views should have no greater authority (pg 326) (E.g. Edward Said’s criticism pg )
Explain why pluralists would criticise liberal distinction between public and private (pg )
Universalist liberalism criticise & reject MC:
MC seen as threat to individualism (pg 332)
MC violates universal values & endorses anti-democratic, oppressive ideas (pg 333)
Cosmopolitan multiculturalists can also be said to go beyond liberalism:
They ultimately look to the construction of a form of global citizenship. Cultures should therefore learn from other cultures (pg 330)

82. Type 2 – does Multiculturalism lead to tension or unity?
Introduction – define key terms. Introduce the different types of MC. Present line of argument
Arguments that multiculturalism can lead to tension/separateness
Arguments that multiculturalism leads to cohesion/mixing:
Conservative criticism of multiculturalism:
Jeopardises shared values which are essential for cohesion (pg 333). Nationalism is therefore favoured instead.
Inevitably leads to conflict, hostility & violence (pg 333)
Undermines delicate balance of society (pg 37 extra reading)
Multiculturalists reject the criticisms and argue that MC relieves tension & creates cohesion:
Politics of recognition is seen as a way of helping groups to feel a sense of identity (pg 316). Pride in culture creates rootedness & prevents isolation (pg 317)
Communitarianism gives people belonging, identity & purpose (pg 319)
Protecting minority rights prevents harm and offence (pg 321)
Denying diversity breeds hate & extremism (pg 323). While recognising diversity benefits society as a whole (pg 324)
Feminist criticism of multiculturalism:
Legitimises male domination & female subordination (pg 334). Gender conflict is therefore deepened.
Liberal multiculturalists place much emphasis on blending diversity & civic unity:
This is achieved by distinguishing between ‘private’ & ‘public’ (pg ). This stance means MC is compatible with civic nationalism.
Advocating shallow rather than deep diversity prevents conflict caused by intolerant practices (pg 325)
Liberals also support cultural mixing. As different groups learn about each other, they are more likely to respect other beliefs & also they gain greater insight into their own beliefs. Cultural mixing promotes a free market of ideas.
Socialist criticism of multiculturalism:
MC encourages groups to seek their own advancement, rather than advancement of society as a whole (pg 334)

83. Type 2 – does Multiculturalism lead to tension or unity?
Arguments that multiculturalism can lead to tension/separateness
Arguments that multiculturalism leads to cohesion/mixing:
Universalist liberal criticism of multiculturalism:
MC legitimises oppression & anti democratic views (pg 333)
MC makes violence more likely by causing people to identity with just a single group (pg 333)
 Cosmopolitan MC:
Promotes mixing & hybridity of cultures. Each culture learns from each other. (pg ). This leads to cohesion & unity – people are united by common humanity.
Pluralist multiculturalism is critical of mixing and highlights the benefits of separation:
Cultural mixing weakens cultural embeddedness, giving people a shallow or inauthentic sense of identity (pg 324 para 2).
Cultural mixing may also allow the beliefs of the dominant cultural groups to prevail over other cultural groups. Cultural mixing is in danger of descending into cultural imperialism. Cultural separation therefore protects minority ethnic groups from ‘westernisation’. (pg 327,330)
Pluralist Multiculturalists
Believe that politics of recognition as a way of encouraging people to live together harmoniously.
Value pluralism leads to live and let live approach, which prevents conflict (pg 326)
Conclusion - Sum up the key viewpoints. Confirm and justify your line of argument

84. Type 3 – to what extent are multiculturalists unified?
Introduction - define key term. Introduce the different types of MC. Present line of argument
United arguments
Divided arguments
All forms of MC wish to reconcile cultural diversity with civic cohesion (pg 324)
All believe in practising the politics of recognition (pg 316)
All believe in importance of diversity & that diversity has many positive benefits (pg ) (if wording of question focuses on diversity, go into more detail on all the benefits)
All believe culture links to identity & creates rootedness (pg 317)
All believe in importance of protecting minority rights & that this can be justified in many ways (pg )
Disagree on diversity – liberals advocate shallow diversity (pg 325) & pluralists deep diversity (pg 326).
While cosmopolitans support diversity in the interests of cultural mixing, which leads to the development of global citizenship.
Disagree on values – liberal believe that western values, e.g. freedom & toleration have more value & that liberal democracy is only legitimate system (pg 326). While Pluralists believe in value pluralism & criticise belief that liberal values have more importance (pg 326)
Cosmopolitan MC is very different to other traditions (pg 330).
In some ways it is the antithesis of MC (extra reading pg 36).

85. Type 3 – to what extent are multiculturalists unified?
United arguments
Divided arguments
Division over whether cultural mixing or cultural separation is preferable:
Liberal and Cosmopolitan favour cultural mixing:
Liberals support as different groups can learn about each other, so respect other beliefs & gain greater insight into their own beliefs. Cultural mixing promotes a free market of ideas
Cosmopolitan MC - Promotes mixing & hybridity of cultures. Each culture learns from each other. (pg ).
Pluralist multiculturalism is critical of cultural mixing and highlights cultural separation:
Cultural mixing weakens cultural embeddedness, giving people a shallow or inauthentic sense of identity (pg 324 para 2).
Cultural mixing may also allow the beliefs of the dominant cultural groups to prevail over other cultural groups. Cultural mixing is in danger of descending into cultural imperialism. Cultural separation therefore protects minority ethnic groups from ‘westernisation’. (pg 327,330)
Conclusion - Sum up the key viewpoints. Confirm and justify your line of argument