1. Chapter 11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids
Homework problems: 7, 10, 15, 19, 22, 25, 29, 32, 36, 37, 38, 44, 45, 51, 58, 59, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 76, 96, 101
Chapter 11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids

2. States of Matter
The fundamental difference between states of matter is the distance between particles.

3. States of Matter
Because in the solid and liquid states particles are closer together, we refer to them as condensed phases.

4. The States of Matter
The state a substance is in at a particular temperature and pressure depends on two antagonistic entities:
The kinetic energy of the particles
The strength of the attractions between the particles

5. Intermolecular Forces
The attractions between molecules are not nearly as strong as the intramolecular attractions that hold compounds together.

6. Intermolecular Forces
They are, however, strong enough to control physical properties such as boiling and melting points, vapor pressures, and viscosities.

7. Intermolecular Forces
These intermolecular forces as a group are referred to as van der Waals forces.

8. van der Waals Forces Dipole-dipole interactions Hydrogen bonding
London dispersion forces

9. Ion-Dipole Interactions
A fourth type of force, ion-dipole interactions are an important force in solutions of ions.
The strength of these forces are what make it possible for ionic substances to dissolve in polar solvents.

10. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Molecules that have permanent dipoles are attracted to each other.
The positive end of one is attracted to the negative end of the other and vice-versa.
These forces are only important when the molecules are close to each other.

11. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
The more polar the molecule, the higher is its boiling point.

12. London Dispersion Forces
While the electrons in the 1s orbital of helium would repel each other (and, therefore, tend to stay far away from each other), it does happen that they occasionally wind up on the same side of the atom.

13. London Dispersion Forces
At that instant, then, the helium atom is polar, with an excess of electrons on the left side and a shortage on the right side.

14. London Dispersion Forces
Another helium nearby, then, would have a dipole induced in it, as the electrons on the left side of helium atom 2 repel the electrons in the cloud on helium atom 1.

15. London Dispersion Forces
London dispersion forces, or dispersion forces, are attractions between an instantaneous dipole and an induced dipole.
These dipoles fluctuate; they do not last very long, but they do occur frequently enough to have a significant effect overall

16. See LDFs at work here

17. London Dispersion Forces
These forces are present in all molecules, whether they are polar or nonpolar.
The tendency of an electron cloud to distort in this way is called polarizability.

18. Factors Affecting London Forces
The shape of the molecule affects the strength of dispersion forces: long, skinny molecules (like n-pentane tend to have stronger dispersion forces than short, fat ones (like neopentane).
This is due to the increased surface area in n-pentane.

19. Factors Affecting London Forces
The strength of dispersion forces tends to increase with increased molecular weight.
Larger atoms have larger electron clouds, which are easier to polarize.

20. Which Have a Greater Effect: Dipole-Dipole Interactions or Dispersion Forces?
If two molecules are of comparable size and shape, dipole-dipole interactions will likely be the dominating force.
If one molecule is much larger than another, dispersion forces will likely determine its physical properties.

21. How Do We Explain This?
The nonpolar series (SnH4 to CH4) follow the expected trend.
The polar series follows the trend from H2Te through H2S, but water is quite an anomaly.

22. Hydrogen Bonding
The dipole-dipole interactions experienced when H is bonded to N, O, or F are unusually strong.
We call these interactions hydrogen bonds.

23. Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding arises in part from the high electronegativity of nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine.
Also, when hydrogen is bonded to one of those very electronegative elements, the hydrogen nucleus is exposed.

24.
(note: I am not responsible for the music on the above web site)
Polarity and hydrogen bond formation
Ice at different temperatures

25. IMFs in proteins

26. For the next slide: Determine polarity of group
Determine polarity of group
Determine type of IMFs are possible in group
Determine if the group will be highly soluble in water

27. Sickle Cell Anemia Glu (glutamic acid) replaced by Val (valine)
Glu (glutamic acid) replaced by Val (valine)
synthesis

28. Summarizing Intermolecular Forces

29. Which member of the following pairs has the larger London dispersion forces? Explain.
H2O or H2S
CO2 or CO
CH4 or CCl4

30. Identify the types of intermolecular forces present in each of the following substances, and select the substance in each pair that has the higher boiling point.
C6H14 or C8H18
C3H8 or CH3OCH3
HOOH or HSSH
NH2NH2 or CH3CH3

31. Intermolecular Forces Affect Many Physical Properties
The strength of the attractions between particles can greatly affect the properties of a substance or solution.

32. Viscosity Resistance of a liquid to flow is called viscosity.
It is related to the ease with which molecules can move past each other.
Viscosity increases with stronger intermolecular forces and decreases with higher temperature.

33. Surface Tension
Surface tension results from the net inward force experienced by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.

34. What is the difference between cohesive and adhesive forces?
Do viscosity and surface tension reflect adhesive or cohesive forces of attraction?
Why does water form a U-shaped meniscus in a glass tube?
How is the capacity of paper towels to absorb water related to capillary action?

35. Surface Tension (High surface tension) (Low surface tension)
(High surface tension) (Low surface tension)
Cohesion: Molecules sticking (due to IMFs) to the same molecule in a pure compound
Adhesion: Molecules sticking (due to IMFs) to other molecules adjacent to the pure compound
(not a mixture- at a surface interface)
The molecules of water have more adhesion to the (polar) glass than to each other (cohesion);
The Hg has more cohesive forces than attraction to the glass

36. Phase Changes
Which forces are breaking and forming during a phase change, intermolecular or intramolecular?

37. Energy Changes Associated with Changes of State
Heat of Fusion: Energy required to change a solid at its melting point to a liquid.

38. Energy Changes Associated with Changes of State
Heat of Vaporization: Energy required to change a liquid at its boiling point to a gas.

39. Energy Changes Associated with Changes of State
The heat added to the system at the melting and boiling points goes into pulling the molecules farther apart from each other.
The temperature of the substance does not rise during the phase change.

40. Vapor Pressure
At any temperature, some molecules in a liquid have enough energy to escape.
As the temperature rises, the fraction of molecules that have enough energy to escape increases.

41. Vapor Pressure
As more molecules escape the liquid, the pressure they exert increases.

42. Vapor Pressure
The liquid and vapor reach a state of dynamic equilibrium: liquid molecules evaporate and vapor molecules condense at the same rate.

43. Vapor Pressure
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is 760 torr.

44. Why does chopping an onion make you cry?
Cutting an onion opens cells & releases amino acid sulfoxides and enzymes.
These react to form sulfur containing gas.
Gas reaches eyes & reacts with water to form mild sulfuric acid.
Your brain reacts by making more water to dilute the acid…thus, you cry.

45. Why does refrigerating an onion reduce this affect?
Low temperature removes KE
Molecules do not escape into the gaseous phase so readily
Less gas makes it to your eyes.

46. Phase Diagrams
Phase diagrams display the state of a substance at various pressures and temperatures and the places where equilibria exist between phases.

47. Phase Diagrams The AB line is the liquid-vapor interface.
It starts at the triple point (A), the point at which all three states are in equilibrium.

48. Phase Diagrams
It ends at the critical point (B); above this critical temperature and critical pressure the liquid and vapor are indistinguishable from each other.

49. Phase Diagrams
Each point along this line is the boiling point of the substance at that pressure.

50. Phase Diagrams The AD line is the interface between liquid and solid.
The melting point at each pressure can be found along this line.

51. Phase Diagrams Below A the substance cannot exist in the liquid state.
Along the AC line the solid and gas phases are in equilibrium; the sublimation point at each pressure is along this line.

52. Phase Diagram of Water
Note the high critical temperature and critical pressure:
These are due to the strong van der Waals forces between water molecules.

53. Phase Diagram of Water The slope of the solid–liquid line is negative.
This means that as the pressure is increased at a temperature just below the melting point, water goes from a solid to a liquid.
How can you use a phase diagram to explain how ice skates work?

54. Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide cannot exist in the liquid state at pressures below 5.11 atm; CO2 sublimes at normal pressures.

55. Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
The low critical temperature and critical pressure for CO2 make supercritical CO2 a good solvent for extracting nonpolar substances (such as caffeine).

56. Refer to the phase diagram for carbon dioxide
Refer to the phase diagram for carbon dioxide. Describe the phase changes that occur when CO2 is heated from
-80.0°C to -20°C at (a) a constant pressure of 3 atm; (b) a constant pressure of 6 atm.

57. Solids We can think of solids as falling into two groups:
Crystalline—particles are in highly ordered arrangement.

58. Solids
Amorphous—no particular order in the arrangement of particles.

59. Attractions in Ionic Crystals
In ionic crystals, ions pack themselves so as to maximize the attractions and minimize repulsions between the ions.

60. Crystalline Solids
Because of the order in a crystal, we can focus on the repeating pattern of arrangement called the unit cell.

61. Crystalline Solids
There are several types of basic arrangements in crystals, such as the ones shown above.

62. Halite, NaCl

63. Calcite, CaCO3

64. Snow Flakes, H2O

65. Crystalline Solids
We can determine the empirical formula of an ionic solid by determining how many ions of each element fall within the unit cell.

66. Ionic Solids What are the empirical formulas for these compounds?
(a) Green: chlorine; Gray: cesium
(b) Yellow: sulfur; Gray: zinc
(c) Green: calcium; Gray: fluorine
(a)
(b)
(c)
CsCl
ZnS
CaF2

67. A particular form of cinnabar (HgS) adopts the zinc blende structure (see figure (b) on previous slide). The length of the unit cell side is Å.
Calculate the density of HgS in this form
The mineral tiemmanite (HgSe) also forms a solid phase with the zinc blende structure. The length of the unit cell side in this mineral is Å. What accounts for the larger unit cell length in the tiemmanite?
Which of the two substances has the higher density? How can you account for this?

68. Types of Bonding in Crystalline Solids

69. Covalent-Network and Molecular Solids
Diamonds are an example of a covalent-network solid in which atoms are covalently bonded to each other.
They tend to be hard and have high melting points.

70. Covalent-Network and Molecular Solids
Graphite is an example of a molecular solid in which atoms are held together with van der Waals forces.
They tend to be softer and have lower melting points.

71. Metallic Solids
Metals are not covalently bonded, but the attractions between atoms are too strong to be van der Waals forces.
In metals, valence electrons are delocalized throughout the solid.

72. SAMPLE INTEGRATIVE EXERCISE Putting Concepts Together
The substance CS2(s) has a melting point of –110.8ºC and a boiling point of 46.3°C. Its density at 20°C is 1.26 g/cm3. It is highly inflammable. (a) What is the name of this compound? (b) If you were going to look up the properties of this substance in the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, would you look under the physical properties of inorganic or organic compounds? Explain. (c) How would you classify CS2(s) as to type of crystalline solid? (d) Write a balanced equation for the combustion of this compound in air. (You will have to decide on the most likely oxidation products.) (e) The critical temperature and pressure for CS2 are 552 K and 78 atm, respectively. Compare these values with those for CO2 (Table 11.5), and discuss the possible origins of the differences. (f) Would you expect the density of CS2 at 40°C to be greater or less than at 20°C? What accounts for the difference?