1. INVESTMENT RISK APPRAISAL
CHAPTER 7
INVESTMENT RISK APPRAISAL

2. Chapter outline Introduction
What are uncertainty and risk and why do they need to be assessed?
Types of risk in investment projects
Probability distributions and expected values
Using scenario analysis, sensitivity analysis and simulation analysis to assess risk
Break-even analysis as a measure of dealing with risk
Conclusion 2

3. Learning outcomes By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the importance of recognizing risk in investment appraisal
Identify the various types of risk involved in investment projects
Discuss the use of probability distributions and expected values in risk assessment
Discuss scenario analysis, sensitivity analysis and simulation analysis in investment projects
Apply break-even analysis as a measure of dealing with risk.

4. Introduction Capital investment decisions carry level of risk
Risk may impact on end result of investment, especially investments in businesses or projects in foreign countries
Capital investment decisions are about the future
Risk and uncertainty need to be taken into account when decisions are made

5. Uncertainty and risk
Certainty – where there is no doubt about the outcome of something
Uncertainty – where one does not know which events or factors will influence the end result of a project and cannot attach probabilities to the occurrence of possible events
Risk – there is the possibility of incurring loss or misfortune because of uncertainty about the future
Probability – refers to the likelihood that a particular event will occur

6. Risk vs return Investment is done with the aim of generating return
The percentage return from an investment can be calculated as follows:
Where:
= percentage return over period t-1 to t
= cash expected to be received over period t-1 to t
= price or value of the investment at the end of the investment period, time t
= price or value of the start of the investment period, at time t-1

7. Example 7.1
Beta Ltd purchased shares in Charlie Ltd as an investment. Financial analysts predicted that Charlie Ltd will do very well and that Beta Ltd will generate a healthy return from an investment in Charlie Ltd. However, after two years of having the investment, the board of directors want to know what percentage of return the investment is generating. The company’s required rate of return is 15% on similar investments, and the board wants to make sure it is worth holding on to the investment.
The investment originally cost Beta Ltd R1 500 000. Beta Ltd received R40 000 in dividends over the two-year period of holding the investment. Based on market values, the investment is worth R1 700 000 after the two years.

8. Example 7.1
The percentage return from the investment can be calculated as follows:
This means that Beta Ltd is earning a 16% return on the investment. Based on the required rate of return of 15% that the company expects from its investments, the return is acceptable.

9. Approaches to risk in investment appraisal
Risk tolerance – amount of risk a company is willing to take when making an investment
Company-specific – based on perceptions of management and financial position of the company
Usually an individual or company is willing to accept more risk if a greater return can be expected

10. Approaches to risk in investment appraisal
Risk tolerance can be divided into three categories:
Risk averse – investors prefer to avoid risk and would not accept higher risk unless the returns are disproportionately higher to compensate for taking on more risk
Risk seekers – willing to take on more risk even if expected returns are not proportionately higher
Risk neutral – investors expect a proportionate increase or decrease in return for accepting an increase or decrease in risk

11. Risk tolerance levels
Risk seeking
Risk averse
Risk neutral

12. Risk-rating scale Severity Slight Moderate Extreme Likelihood
Slight
Moderate
Extreme
Likelihood
Highly unlikely
Trivial
Low
Medium
Unlikely
High
Likely
Intolerable

13. Types of risk in investment projects
Elementary risks
Systematic – basic market risk because of economic changes or other events, e.g. political event which affects portfolio
Unsystematic – more specific, affects fewer investments at the same time, e.g. fire at factory

14. Types of risk in investment projects
Business risk – company will not be able to finance its operating costs, therefore having too much in fixed cost versus variable cost
Financial risk – company is not able to cover its debt obligations
Interest-rate risk – interest rate changes will adversely affect the value of an investment
Liquidity risk – an investment cannot be sold at a reasonable price

15. Types of risk in investment projects
Market risk – market factors unrelated to the investment (e.g. political, economic or social factors) will adversely affect the value of an investment
Event risk – unexpected event will have an effect on a company and/or investment
Exchange-rate risk – investment and/or investment returns will be negatively affected by exchange rate fluctuations

16. Types of risk
Purchasing-power risk – price level changes because of inflation which will affect investments and/or investment returns
Tax risk – changes in tax laws will negatively affect investment and/or investment returns
Credit or default risk – company or individual cannot pay the returns due on an investment or in a worst case cannot pay back the amount originally invested
Country risk – political and/or financial events in a country will affect the worth of or the investment returns

17. Probability distribution
Probability distribution – statistical technique that establishes what the likely outcome of an uncertain event will be
Depicted on a graph as follows:

18. Expected value
Average of the possible outcomes, weighted by the probability of the outcomes actually occurring, calculated as follows: __
Where: r = expected (average) return
rj = the return for the jth outcome
Prj = the probability of occurrence for the jth outcome
n = the number of outcomes considered to calculate an expected value

19. Example 7.3
Joy Ltd commissioned an economic expert about a new product that the company plan to launch in the near future. At best, the company expects to sell 200 000 units of product. The marketing expert has prepared the following table of probable outcomes:
Outcome
Probability
Units sold
Strong economy
30%
Normal economy
50%
Weak economy
20%
25 000

20. Example 7.3 The expected value will be:
This means that the business can expect to sell an average of 137 500 units of product. At best it would sell 200 000 units and at the worst 25 000. This is the most basic method to evaluate whether it is worthwhile taking on a project, taking into account also the company’s risk tolerance levels.

21. Scenario analysis
Analyses future events by considering alternative possible outcomes
What happens to NPV under different cash flow scenarios?
Various scenarios are indicated and effect on the outcome of investment is evaluated
Useful for indicating viability of an investment or capital project if the values of the variables are different to what is expected both in a positive and negative sense
Useful for indicating potential downside

22. Scenario analysis Has limitations:
It analyses the effect on return if one changes the value of one variable at a time – the other variables are held constant
Does not indicate whether the project should be accepted or rejected

23. Sensitivity analysis
Method of establishing how sensitive the expected return is to a change in the value of a key variable
What happens to NPV when one variable at a time is changed?
Variables include discount rate, annual operating revenues, annual operating costs, expected project life and residual value
Using several different variables shows which variables’ best- and worst-case scenarios produce the biggest changes to NPV

24. Sensitivity analysis
First step is to calculate a single expected outcome for an investment and to use as base value
Using additional information, two or more situations can be formulated by making changes to relevant variables

25. Simulation analysis
Statistical method using probability distributions and random numbers to estimate a variety of risk outcomes
Simulation is really just an expanded sensitivity and scenario analysis
By applying and repeating the process, a probability distribution of project returns can be established
More times the analyst can repeat the process, the more feasible the end result is likely to be
Gives investor a better risk-adjusted indication of return

26. Simulation analysis
Computers and advanced statistical software have made analyses easier and cost-effective
Monte Carlo Method – randomly generates values for different uncertain variables

27. Break-even analysis
Common tool for analyzing the relationship between sales volume and profitability
Measures the point at which a capital project breaks even and identifies the sales level below which it will start losing money
Indicates the level to which revenue could fall without there being a reduction in the value of the firm

28. Break-even analysis
Total cost (TC) is equal to the sum of variable cost (VC) (costs that change with the quantity of output) and fixed operating cost (FC) (costs that don’t change with the quantity of output)
TC = VC(Q) + FC

29. Break-even analysis Three common break-even measures
Accounting break-even
Sales volume at which net income = 0
Cash break-even
Sales volume at which operating cash flow = 0
Financial break-even
Sales volume at which net present value = 0 29

30. Conclusion
It is important to incorporate risk into the evaluation of investments and when deciding about accepting or rejecting projects.
Risk is the likelihood that the return on an investment can be affected in an unfavorable way.
Certainty is a state where only one end result is possible.
Uncertainty is a state where it is impossible to exactly predict the future return on an investment.

31. Conclusion (cont.)
Sensitivity analysis is used to establish how sensitive the return on an investment is to changes in the values of key variables in the evaluation of investment projects.
Scenario analysis overcomes the limitations of sensitivity analysis by taking into consideration the probability of changes in key variables associated with inputs in the cash flows.

32. Conclusion (cont.)
Break even analysis is a measure of dealing with risk.
These methods make is possible to reduce the risk of unforeseen circumstances having a negative impact on the value of investments