1. Genetic Engineering and Animal Research
Masalakulangwa

2. Define
Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way. 

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Genetic engineering, sometimes called genetic modification, is the process of altering the DNA? in an organism’s genome.

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It may also mean extracting DNA from another organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA of that individual.

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Genetic engineering is used by scientists to enhance or modify the characteristics of an individual organism.

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Genetic engineering can be applied to any organism, from a virus to a sheep.

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For example, genetic engineering can be used to produce plants that have a higher nutritional value or can tolerate exposure to herbicides.

8. How does genetic engineering work?
To help explain the process of genetic engineering we can take the example of insulin, a protein that helps regulate the sugar levels in our blood.

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Normally insulin is produced in the pancreas, but in people with type 1 diabetes there is a problem with insulin production.

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People with diabetes therefore have to inject insulin to control their blood sugar levels. 

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Genetic engineering has been used to produce a type of insulin, very similar to our own, from yeast and bacteria like E. coli. 

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This genetically modified insulin, ‘Humulin’ was licensed for human use in 1982. 

13. Process … (home work)

14. DNA

15. GMO (GMS)

16. Gene therapy

17. Mutation

18. Single gene disorders

19. Genome editing

20. Selective breeding

21. ANIMAL RESEARCH

22. 4 major reasons
Animals are used in research when there is a need to find out what happens in the whole, living body, which is far more complex than the sum of its parts.
It is difficult, and in most cases simply not yet possible, to replace the use of living animals in research with alternative methods.

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There are four main reasons why animals are used in research:

24. #1To advance scientific understanding
Adding to scientific knowledge through basic biological research helps us understand how living things work, and apply that understanding for the benefit of both humans and animals. The study of animals is a vital part of this research process.

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Many basic cell processes are the same in all animals, and the bodies of animals are like humans in the way that they perform many vital functions such as breathing, digestion, movement, sight, hearing and reproduction. right.

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To treat disease, doctors and scientists must understand how the healthy body works. This, in turn, leads to an understanding of what happens to the body when we fall ill and how this can be put right.

27. #2 Animals as models to study disease
Humans and animals share hundreds of illnesses, and consequently animals can act as models for the study of human illness.
For example, rabbits suffer from atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), as well as diseases such as emphysema, and birth defects such as spina bifida.

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Dogs suffer from cancer, diabetes, cataracts, ulcers and bleeding disorders such as haemophilia, which make them natural candidates for research into these disorders. Cats suffer from some of the same visual impairments as humans. From such models we learn how disease affects the body, how the immune system responds, who will be affected, and more.

30. #3 To develop and test potential forms of treatment
Once researchers learn more about a particular disease, animals are used to develop and test these potential therapies as part of the applied research process.
For example, medicines for Parkinson's disease have been developed using animal models with induced Parkinson’s-like symptoms.

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Models such as these are an essential part of applying biological research to real medical problems, allowing new targets for disease intervention to be identified. Data from animal studies is essential before new therapeutic techniques and surgical procedures can be tested on human patients.

32. #4. To protect the safety of people, animals and the environment
New medicines require testing because researchers must measure both the beneficial and the harmful effects of a compound on a whole organism.
A medicine is initially tested in vitro using tissues and isolated organs, but legally and ethically it must also be tested in a suitable animal model before clinical trials in humans can take place.

33. 3Rs
The Three Rs (3Rs) in relation to science are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing.
They were first described by W. M. S. Russell and R. L. Burch in The 3Rs are:

34. 1R
Replacement: methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in research

35. 2R
Reduction: use of methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.

36. 3R
Refinement: use of methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, and enhance animal welfare for the animals used.

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The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals cannot be avoided.
In many countries, including Tanzania, these 3Rs are now explicit in legislation governing animal use.

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It is usual to capitalize the first letter of each of the three 'R' principles (i.e. 'Replacement' rather than 'replacement') to avoid ambiguity and clarify reference to the 3Rs principles.