1. Social-Learning Approach
Albert Bandura
ICSP254 Theories of Personality

2. Albert Bandura
Like Skinner, Bandura focuses on overt behavior rather than on needs, traits, drives, or defense mechanisms.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura allows for internal cognitive variables that mediate between stimulus and response
Bandura observed human subjects in social setting

3. Social Learning Theory
We cannot expect data from experiments that involve no social interactions because few people truly function in social isolation
Observational learning – learning new responses by observing the behavior of other people
Vicarious reinforcement – by observing the behavior of other people and the consequences of that behavior

4. Social Learning Theory (2)
Internal cognition or thought process can influence observational learning
We do not automatically initiate behaviors we see other people displaying.
Our cognition mediate between the stimuli and target behavior i.e., to decide whether it’s worth it

5. Agenda Observational Learning Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification

6. Modeling as Basis of Observational Learning
Learning occur through observation or example, rather than solely by direct reinforcement
Operant conditioning is inefficient and dangerous way to learn skills such as swimming or driving

7. Modeling
Modeling – behavioral modification technique involves observing the behavior of others (the “model”) and participating with them in performing the desired behaviors
Intensity of aggressive behavior remained the same in the subjects whether the model was seen live, on tv, or as cartoon character

8. Disinhibition
Research shows that behaviors a person usually suppresses may be performed more readily under influence of a model
Disinhibition – the weakening of inhibitions or constraints by observing the behavior of a model
Ex. People in a crowd may start breaking down windows (physical aggression) that they would never perform when alone

9. Effect of Society’s Models
Much behavior – good and bad, normal and abnormal – is learned by imitating the behavior of other people.
Bandura is concerned about type of society that provides the wrong models for its children like violent behavior on facebook Live
Children also acquired non-rational fears through modeling. A child sees parent nervous around strangers will easily adopt the anxieties and carry them into adulthood.
Of course, positive behaviors such as courage and optimism also learned through modeling as well

10. Modeling Situation Characteristic of Models Similar to us
Model > no model
Same age
Same sex
Status/prestige
Simple behavior > complex
Characteristic of Observer
Low self confidence > high
Reinforced (rewarded) for imitating
Reward - Consequence
Meaningful reward
See model being rewarded or punished

11. Agenda Observational Learning Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification

12. Process of Observational Learning

13. Attention Processes
Observational learning will not occur unless subject pays attention to the model
Variables that influence attentional process:
Age, sex, status, and degree of similarity between model and subject
Celebrity models, experts, and those who appear confident and attractive command greater attention and imitation
Observer’s cognitive and perceptual skills
Value of behavior being modeled
Modeled behavior that produces positive or negative consequences > neutral outcomes)

14. Retention Process
We must be able to remember model’s behaviors in order to repeat it later
To retain, we must encode it and represent it symbolically
We retain information in two ways:
imaginal internal representation (mental picture)
verbal system (can be rehearsed silently)

15. Production Process
Translating imaginal/verbal symbolic representation into overt behavior
Initially will be clumsy
Practice and receiving feedback is needed to produce smooth performance of behavior

16. Incentive and Motivational Processes
We will not do behavior without incentive
When incentive available, observation is more quickly translated into action. Incentive also influence attentional and retention process
Incentive to learn is influenced by our anticipation of reinforcement or punishment
Other factors such as loud sound, bright lights, exciting videos may capture our interest even without incentive

17. Agenda Observational Learning Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification

18. The Self
In Bandura’s theory, the self is not some psychic agent that determines or cause behavior
Self is a set of cognitive processes and structures concerned with thought and perception.
Two important aspects of Self are self-reinforcement and self- efficacy

19. Self-Reinforcement
Self-Reinforcement – we set personal standards of behavior. We reward ourselves for meeting expectations and punish ourselves for our failures
Self-reinforcements can be tangible like new shoes or emotional such as satisfaction from a job well done
Self-punishment can be expressed in shame, guilt, or depression
Continuing process of self-reinforcement regulates much of our behavior

20. Self-Reinforcement
People who set unrealistic standards (who observed and learned from unusually talented and successful models) may continue to try to meet those excessively high expectations despite repeated failures
Emotionally they may punish self with feelings of worthlessness and depression
Which can lead to self-destructive behaviors

21. Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy – our feeling of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in coping with life
Meeting our own performance standards enhances self-efficacy, failure to meet and maintain them reduces it
Low in self-efficacy -> feel helpless, unable to exercise control over life, any efforts is useless, give up when initial attempt is ineffective as they encounter obstacles
Low self-efficacy destroys motivation, lower aspirations, interfere with cognitive abilities, and negatively affect physical health

22. Self Efficacy (2)
High in self-efficacy -> believe they can deal effectively with events and situations, expect to succeed so persevere, high level performance, view difficulties as challenges, seek new situations, reduces fear of failures,
“Power of believing you can”

23. Sources of Information about Self-Efficacy
Our judgment about our self-efficacy based on 4 sources:
Performance Attainment
Vicarious Experiences
Verbal Persuasion
Physiological and Emo Arousal
Previous success
See success
“If they can do it, so can I”
“You can do it”
How aroused to judge ability to cope

24. Conditions that increase self-efficacy
Expose to success experiences by arranging reachable goals increases performance attainment
Expose to appropriate models who perform successfully to enhance vicarious success experience
Provide verbal persuasion to increase belief that they have ability to perform successfully
Strengthening physiological arousal through proper diet, stress reduction, and exercise programs increases strength, stamina, and ability to cope

25. Agenda Observational Learning Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification

26. Childhood Infancy, modeling is limited to immediate imitation
Not yet developed cognitive ability for imaginal and verbal representation systems needed to imitate behavior some time after observing it
Model behaviors repeat several times
Must be within infant’s range of sensorimotor development
Age 2, can begin imitating some time after (vs. immediately)

27. Childhood (2)
Reinforcements changed with age (younger – physical stimuli like food, affection, punishment, older – approval)
Self-efficacy develops gradually centered on parents
Gender Differences
High self-efficacy men = warn relationships with fathers. Mothers were demanding and pressure for high achievement
High self-efficacy women = pressure from fathers for high achievement

28. Childhood (3)
Birth order and gender of siblings play a role in development of self-efficacy
Teachers and peers become important, children rate their own competence in term’s of teacher’s evaluations and peers’ performances

29. Adolescence Transitional experiences
Must establish new competencies and appraisals of their abilities
Success of this stage depends on level of self-efficacy established during childhood years

30. Adulthood Young Adulthood Adjustments such as marriage, parent, career
High self-efficacy is necessary for successful outcomes
Research shows women high in self-efficacy about parenting skills experience less stress and promote self-efficacy in children.
Middle Ages
People re-evaluate careers, families, and social lives and find new opportunities for enhancing our self-efficacy

31. Old Age Difficult with declining mental and physical abilities
Lowering self-efficacy affect physical/mental functions
Self-efficacy is crucial factor in determining success or failure throughout entire life span

32. Agenda Observational Learning Processes of Observational Learning
Self-Reinforcement and Self Efficacy
Developmental Stages
Behavior Modification

33. Behavior Modification
Bandura’s goal in developing his theory was to modify or change learned behaviors that society considers undesirable or abnormal

34. Fears and Phobias Modeling techniques to eliminate fears
Children who were afraid of dogs observe a child of same age playing with a dog
Guided participation – watch a live model and then participate with the model
Ex. Subjects watch a live model handles snake from outside room. Then subject enters the room with model. Then wearing gloves and touched the snake. Eventually touch snake without gloves

35. Fears and Phobias
Covert modeling – subjects are instructed to imagine a model coping with the feared stimulus.
Overcoming fears can expends their environment (e.g., real estate agent can show more houses after eliminating fear of snakes) and increase a person’s self-efficacy
Advantages of Modeling
Can edit to relevant part, can replay, can be used with groups to save time, improved self-efficacy

36. Anxiety Fear of Medical Treatment
Child scheduled for surgery that had never been in hosp before shows modeling film effective in reducing anxiety
Test Anxiety
Exam does not reflect true knowledge due to test anxiety
Modeling ways to deal with test anxiety

37. Ethical Issues
Behavioral modification exploits people, manipulating and controlling them against their will
Bandura argued that client has self-awareness and actually increase personal freedom (i.e., people afraid to leave house are not truly free)

38. Questions about Human Nature
Past
Present
Nurture
Determinism
Nature
Free Will
Past or Present?
Childhood learning important (self-efficacy est in childhood)
Free Will or Determinism?
Behavior controlled by person through cognitive process and by environment through external social situations called reciprocal determinism
Nature or Nurture?
Behaviors are learned

39. Questions about Human Nature
Uniqueness
Universality
Pessimism
Growth
Optimism
Equilibrium
Unique or Universal?
Learning takes place in the same manner
Equilibrium or Growth?
Able to grow as childhood learned behaviors can be unlearned later in life
Optimism or Pessimism?
Notion of self-directed behavior represents optimistic view