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International Management, 5th ed.
Part Four: Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management
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International Management, Motivation Across Cultures
Hodgetts and Luthans International Management, 5th ed. Chapter Thirteen Motivation Across Cultures
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Objectives of the Chapter
DEFINE ‘motivation,’ and explain it as a psychological process EXAMINE the hierarchy-of-needs motivation theory, and asses its value to international human resource management DISCUSS the two-factor theory of motivation and how an understanding of employee satisfaction can be useful in human resource management throughout the world DESCRIBE achievement motivation theory, and illustrate how this type of motivation can help to motivate employees in the international arena EXAMINE the value of process theories in motivating employees worldwide
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The Nature of Motivation
Psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives Universalist Assumption All people are motivated to pursue goals they value Specific content of the goals that are pursued will be influenced by culture Movement toward market economies may make motivation more similar in different countries
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Figure 13-1 The Basic Motivation Process
Unsatisfied need Drive toward goal to satisfy need Attainment of goal (need satisfaction)
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The Nature of Motivation (cont.)
Content theories Explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior Process theories Explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted
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Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow Every person has five basic needs Physiological needs - food, clothing, shelter, and other basic physical needs Safety needs - desire for security, stability, and the absence of pain Social needs - need to interact and affiliate with others and the need to feel wanted by others Esteem needs - needs for power and status Self-actualization needs - desire to reach one’s full potential by becoming everything one is capable of becoming Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs become motivators Once satisfied, a need is no longer a motivator
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Figure 13-2 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Self- actualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological
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Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory (cont.)
International Findings on Maslow’s Theory People throughout the world have needs similar to those described in the hierarchy Each country or geographic region appears to have its own need-satisfaction profile Limitations on the theory’s applicability May have to rerank the needs A single hierarchy may not reflect subcultures within a given culture Theory is not sufficient alone for identifying motivational factors in international management
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Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Theory that holds there are two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction Motivators Job content factors which include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself Produce satisfaction but not dissatisfaction Hygiene factors Job context variables that include salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration Produce dissatisfaction but not satisfaction Theory has been criticized for a variety of reasons
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Figure 13-3 Views of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Traditional View Absent Present (dissatisfaction) (no dissatisfaction) (hygiene factors) Two-Factor Theory Absent Present (no satisfaction) (dissatisfaction) (motivators)
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Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (cont.)
International Findings on Herzberg’s Theory Two-Factor Replications Research in New Zealand, Greece, Israel, and Zambia support the theory Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies Results indicate that Herzberg-type motivators tend to be more important sources of job satisfaction than are hygienes Job content factors are more important than job context factors in motivating all levels of employees
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Figure 13-4 Motivation Factors in Motivation
High dissatisfaction Neutral point satisfaction Growth opportunity Work nature Material and physical provisions Relations with others Fairness in organizational practices Personal problems -2.0 -1.0 +1.0 +2.0
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Background Theory holds that individuals can have a need to get ahead, to attain success and to reach objectives People who have strong a achievement need: Want personal responsibility for solving problems Tend to moderate risk takers Want concrete feedback about their performance Achievement motivation is learned and, therefore, can be developed Theory has shortcomings Measurement issues Does not explain need for achievement in cultures where individual accomplishment is not valued
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Achievement Motivation Theory (cont.)
International Findings Because the achievement need is learned, it is largely determined by the prevailing culture Achievement need is not universal and may change over time For example, achievement motivation is taking root in China Achievement motivation training programs have been successful in underdeveloped countries Cultures of Anglo countries and those that reward entrepreneurial effort support achievement motivation
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Figure 13-5 Selected Countries on the Uncertainty Avoidance and Masculinity Scales
Uncertainty avoidance index High Low Weak uncertainty avoidance Masculine India USA South Africa Canada Others Great Britain Weak uncertainty avoidance Feminine Norway Finland Others Strong uncertainty avoidance Masculine Austria Germany Mexico Others Japan Strong uncertainty avoidance Feminine France Brazil Costa Rica Spain South Korea Others Masculinity Index Low High
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Select Process Theories
Equity Theory Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated Research in western work groups supports the theory Support for the theory is mixed in international studies Goal-Setting Theory Focuses on how individuals go about setting goals and responding to them and the overall impact of this process on motivation Theory has received limited support, especially in collectivist settings and cultures
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Select Process Theories (cont.)
Expectancy Theory Postulates that motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes, and that these outcomes are valued by the individual Theory appears to be culture bound Best able to explain motivation in cultures where the locus of control is high
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Motivation Applied Job Design Sociotechnical designs
A job’s content, the methods that are used on the job, and the way the job relates to others in the organization Quality of Work Life (QWL) All job designs tend to reflect the cultural values of the country Sociotechnical designs Designs that blend the personnel and the technology Attempt to integrate technology in a suitable manner from the standpoint of the workers Mixed results in terms of effects on efficiency Cultural values must support the approach to job design
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Table 13-7 Cultural Dimensions in Japan, Sweden, and the United States
Degree of Dimension High/Strong X Moderate Low/Weak Cultural Dimension Uncertainty avoidance J USA S Individualism USA S J Power distance J USA S Masculinity J USA S
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Motivation Applied (cont.)
Work Centrality Importance of work in an individual’s life relative to other areas of interest Countries differ in the centrality of work Value of Work Many misconceptions about the value of work in a culture Availability of incentives to work confounds notions about the value of work in a society Job Satisfaction Differs among samples of workers from different countries
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Motivation Applied (cont.)
Reward Systems Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate performance Significant differences exist among the reward systems used in different countries Incentives and Culture Financial incentives common across cultures Emphases on equity and equality differs The effectiveness of other incentives appear to be culturally influenced Culture may affect the overall cost of an incentive system
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