1. Cognition and Language
Chapter 7

2. Building Blocks of Thought
Language
A flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings
Nonhumans communicate primarily though signs
Human language is semantic, or meaningful
It is also characterized by displacement in that it is not limited to the here-and-now

3. Structure of Language Phonemes Morphemes Surface structure
Basic sounds (ph, t)
Morphemes
smallest meaning unit (words, prefixes)
Surface structure
Phrases of sentence
Deep structure
Underlying meaning of a sentence
Grammar
Rules of how sounds combine

4. Building Blocks of Thought
Images
Nonverval mental representations of sensory experiences
Concepts
Mental categories for classifying people, objects, or experiences
Prototype
Mental model containing the most typical features of a concept

5. Language, Thought, and Culture

6. Language and Cognition
Linguistic determinism
Idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks
Research only mildly supports the idea

7. Culture and Cognition
All known cultures use categories to form concepts
Culture has an effect on
What information is included in a category
How categories are shaped by experience

8. Nonhuman Thought and Language
Animal cognition
Animals can form concepts
Apes have demonstrated sophisticated problem-solving skills
Chimpanzees and orangutans show signs of self-awareness

9. Nonhuman Thought and Language
The question of language
Chimpanzees have been taught to use American Sign Language
Chimpanzees have been observed using telegraphic speech (two-word combinations)
Some chimps have learned to use keyboard symbols to communicate even without formal training

10. Problem Solving Steps Problem representation
Interpreting or defining the problem
Deciding what category a problem belongs to
Selecting a solution strategy
Evaluating progress toward goal

11. Possible Solution Strategies
Trial and error
Works best with limited number of choices
Information retrieval
Retrieve from memory information about how such a problem has been solved in the past
Algorithms
Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution
Math problems are an example of the type best solved using an algorithm
Heuristics
Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem, but do not guarantee a solution

12. Heuristic Methods Hill climbing Subgoals Means-end analysis
Move progressively closer to goal without moving backward
Subgoals
Break large problem into smaller, more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole problem
Means-end analysis
Aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points
Working backward
Work backward from the desired goal to the existing condition

13. Obstacles to Solving Problems
Motivation
Desire to solve a problem
Mental sets
Tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways
Functional fixedness
Tendency to see only a limited number of uses for an object

14. Creative Problem Solving
Brainstorming
Produces many ideas
Very popular in business
Ideas are not judged when generated
The creative process
People often become more creative when exposed to creative peers

15. Becoming a More Skillful Problem Solver
Eliminate poor choices
Visualize a solution
Develop expertise
Think flexibly

16. Decision Making
Decision making is a special case of problem solving in which possible solutions or choices are already known
Logical decision making
Compensatory model
Rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria
Example: buying a car
Good when issues are well-defined

17. Decision-Making Heuristics
Heuristic processes are used when decisions involve a high degree of ambiguity
Representativeness heuristic
New information is compared to our model of the typical member of a category (prototype)
Availability heuristic
Decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory, even if incomplete
Confirmation bias
Tendency to notice evidence that supports our beliefs and to ignore evidence that contradicts them

18. Framing
How information is presented (or framed) can have an effect on the outcome of decision-making
Research has demonstrated that framing can have very dramatic effects on decision-making

19. Decisions Under Pressure
When decisions are required quickly, experience plays a key role
With increased pressure in an emergency situation, decision making often deteriorates and can end in panic

20. Explaining Our Decisions
Hindsight bias
Tendency to view the outcomes of decisions as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome
Counterfactual thinking
Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened
Often takes the form of “If only…” constructions dealing with causes and consequences