1. Matter and Change Matter = has volume and mass
Element = cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical or chemical means. Each element has unique physical and chemical properties. Elements are made-up of atoms.

2. Subatomic particles of Atoms
Protons = Found in the nucleus of an atom and have a positive charge. They have a mass of about 1 amu. It is the number of protons in the atom that determines what the element will be… Atomic Number
What is the Atomic Number of the element Carbon? How many protons are in an atom of Carbon?

3. Image result for how caves are formed
Caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone. Rainwater picks up carbon dioxide from the air and as it percolates through the soil, which turns into a weak acid. This slowly dissolves out the limestone along the joints, bedding planes and fractures, some of which become enlarged enough to form caves.

4. Processes and Forces Affecting the Lithosphere

5. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are rocks?
amethyst
Most are a mixture of minerals
Some are organic (non-mineral matter) like coal
They are naturally occurring
They are solids made up of mineral or mineral-like matter

6. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are the 3 types of rocks?
Tumbled rocks
Igneous - made from cooling magma
Sedimentary – made of sediments compacted and/or cemented together
Metamorphic – rocks changed by heat and/or pressure

7. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What is the rock cycle?
Magma cools to form igneous rock
any rock can be weathered and eroded to form sedimentary rock
Any rock can be changed by heat or pressure to form metamorphic rock
These changes occur over and over again
The rock cycle is powered by energy from the sun (sedimentary) and the Earth’s interior (igneous and metamorphic)

8. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are igneous rocks like?
Obsidian
There are two types of igneous rocks:
Intrusive rocks form when magma hardens beneath the Earth’s surface
Extrusive rocks form when lava hardens on the Earth’s surface

9. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are igneous rocks like?
Pumice
Igneous rocks are grouped by texture
Fine grained
Coarse grained
Porphyritic (different crystal sizes)
Slow cooling produces large crystals
Fast cooling produces small crystals
Very fast cooling produces no crystals (glassy texture)

10. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are sedimentary rocks like?
Sandstone
The following flow chart summarizes the formation of sedimentary rocks:
Weathering of rock >
Erosion > Deposition >
Cementation and compaction
Ripple marks in the rock mean it was formed by water
Only sedimentary rocks contain fossils.

11. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are metamorphic rocks like?
gneiss
They are formed below Earth’s surface by heat and pressure
They may be foliated (show banding) or nonfoliated
Some agents of metamorphism are heat, pressure, hydrothermal solution (contact with very hot water) or any combination of these.

12. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
What are the two kinds of metamorphism?
Marble
Contact metamorphism occurs when heat from magma touches other rocks and changes them
Regional metamorphism occurs when very large areas of rock are changed by heat and pressure

13. Evidence? Evidence for continental drift
Matching fossils on different continents
The continental puzzle
Matching rock types and structures
Evidence of ancient climates that were different than today (glaciers near the equator)

14. Continental Drift The continental drift hypothesis
Proposed by Alfred Wegener (in 1915)
states that all continents were once joined into one supercontinent called Pangaea
About 200 million years ago Pangaea began breaking up

15. Plate Tectonics The Theory of Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere is divided into plates that move.
The asthenosphere is only semi-solid and allows the plates to move.
There are 7 major plates and many smaller ones

16. Plate Boundaries: Divergent
There are 3 main kinds of plate boundaries.
Divergent  
Oceanic: Sea floor spreading produces new lithosphere. Rocks close to the rift are young. The age is determined by ocean drilling.
Continental: East African rift valley

17. Convergent Boundaries
An oceanic-continental boundary produces a subduction zone where lithosphere is destroyed by melting

18. Convergent Boundaries continued
A continental-continental plate boundary produces mountains. The Himalayan mountains were produced when India crashed (very slowly) into Asia

19. Transform Fault Boundaries
Transform fault boundaries occur where 2 plates grind past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere. The San Andreas fault in California is an example of this. It has caused many earthquakes to occur.

20. Mechanisms of Plate Movement
What are some mechanisms of plate movement?
Ridge push happens at spreading centers where plates are moving apart.
Slab pull happens at subduction zones where one plate is pulled down into the mantle
Mantle Convection occurs when magma heats up, rises, cools, then sinks.

21. Evidence
Ocean Drilling – rocks get older as you move away from a divergent boundary

22. More Evidence More Evidence for Plate Tectonics
Hot Spots – The Hawaiian Islands were formed by a hot spot (a mantle plume)
The mantle plume doesn’t move but the lithospheric plate over it DOES. This creates a chain of islands.

23. Evidence
Paleomagnetism – rocks containing iron show the location of the magnetic poles at the time they were formed.

24. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
What is weathering?
Breaking up rocks into sediments

25. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
Two kinds of weathering
Mechanical- no change in chemical composition
Examples:
frost wedging
roots breaking up rock
animals burrowing
rocks falling

26. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
Two kinds of weathering
Chemical – chemical changes in the composition of rocks
Examples:
acid rain
plants with acid in their roots
water containing carbonic acid forming caves

27. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
Climate and Weathering
Climates with more rain will have more chemical weathering
Climates with 4 seasons (more freeze and thaw cycles) will have more mechanical weathering

28. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
Deposition
It is the movement of sediments
Agents of erosion include: wind, water, gravity, glaciers.
It is the dropping or depositing of sediments
The main agent of deposition is gravity

29. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
What are the components of soil
A little dirt never hurts?
Organic matter (humus)
Mineral matter
Water
Air

30. Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
The Effect of Human Activity on Soil Erosion
Logging (cutting trees)
Clearing land for construction
Plowing land for farming

31.
Components of Soil

32. Caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone
Caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone. Rainwater picks up carbon dioxide from the air and as it percolates through the soil, which turns into a weak acid. This slowly dissolves out the limestone along the joints, bedding planes and fractures, some of which become enlarged enough to form caves.