1. Molecular Luminescence Spectroscopy
Lecture 30

2. Absorption
The absorption of UV-Vis radiation is necessary to excite molecules from the ground state to one of the excited states. Absorption of radiation promotes electrons in chemical bonds to be excited. However, we have seen earlier that not all transitions have the same probability and while certain transitions are practically very important, others are seldom used and are of either no or marginal importance. Therefore, from information we have discussed in Chapter 14 we concluded that there are four different types of electronic transitions which can take place in molecules when they absorb UV-Vis radiation. A s-s* and a n-s* are not useful while the n-p* transition requires low energy but the molar absorptivity for this transition is low and transition energy will increase in presence of polar solvents.

3. The most frequently used transition is the p-p
The most frequently used transition is the p-p* transition for the following reasons:
a.       The molar absorptivity for the p-p* transition is high allowing sensitive determinations.
b.      The energy required is moderate, far less than dissociation energy.
c.       In presence of the most convenient solvent (water), the energy required for a p-p* transition is usually smaller.
Therefore, best molecules that may show absorption are those with p bonds or preferably aromatic nature as discussed earlier. Absorption to higher excited singlet states requires a very short time (in the range of 10-14s).

4. Vibrational Relaxation
Absorption of radiation will excite molecules to different vibrational levels of the excited state. This process is usually followed by successive vibrational relaxations (VR) as well as internal conversion to lower excited states. In cases where transitions occur to the first excited state, vibrational relaxation to the main excited electronic level will take place and/or an intersystem crossing (ISC) to the triplet state can occur.

5. Fluorescence
After vibrational relaxation to first excited electronic level takes place, a molecule can return to the ground state by emission of a photon, called fluorescence (FL). The fluorescence lifetime is much greater than the absorption time and occurs in the range from 10-7 to 10-9s. As the lifetime in the excited state is increased, the probability of fluorescence will be decreased since radiationless deactivation processes may take place. However, not all excited molecules can show fluorescence by returning to ground state and most return to ground state by losing excitation energy as heat or through collisions with other molecules or solvent.

6. External conversion (EC) is a process whereby excited molecules lose their energy due to collisions with other molecules or by transfer of their energy to solvent or other unexcited molecules. Therefore, external conversion is influenced by temperature, solvent viscosity, as well as solvent composition.

7. Internal Conversion
Internal conversion (IC) is a radiationless deactivation process whereby excited molecules return to the ground state without emission of a photon. This process lacks rigid understanding but seems to be the most efficient deactivation process in luminescence spectroscopy, since most molecules do not show fluorescence. However, molecules with close electronic energy levels, to the extent that their vibrational energy levels of ground and excited states are overlapped, are believed to cause efficient internal conversion.

9. Dissociation and predissociation
Internal conversion can result in a phenomenon called predissociation (PD) where an electron relaxes from a higher electronic state to an upper vibrational energy of a lower electronic state. When the vibrational energy is large enough and is greater than the bond senergy, bond rupture occurs in a process called predissociation. Dissociation should be differentiated from predissociation where dissociation involves absorption of high energy so that the molecule is directly promoted to a high energy vibrational level where bond rupture directly occurs.

10. Intersystem Crossing
Electrons present at the first excited electronic level can follow one of three choices including emission of a photon to give fluorescence, radiationless deactivation to ground state, or intersystem crossing (ISC). The process of intersystem crossing involves transfer of the electron from an excited singlet to a triplet state. This process can actually take place since the vibrational levels in the singlet and triplet states overlap. However, crossing of the singlet state to the triplet state involves a flip in electron spin in order to satisfy the triplet state.

11. Intersystem crossing is facilitated by presence of nonbonding electrons as well as heavy atoms. The presence of paramagnetic atoms or species also enhances intersystem crossing.
An electron in the triplet state can also cross back to the singlet state and can result in a photon as fluorescence but at a much longer time than regular fluorescence. This process is termed delayed fluorescence and has the same characteristics as direct fluorescence except for the large increase in lifetime.

12. Phosphorescence
Electrons crossing the singlet state to the triplet state with a flipped spin can also follow one of three choices including returning to the singlet state (including a flip in spin), relax to ground state by internal or/and external conversion, or lose their energy as a photon (phosphorescence, Ph) and relax to ground state with a second flip in spin to satisfy the singlet ground state. As can be rationalized from the processes involved in collecting phosphorescence photons, this involves an intersystem crossing and two flips in spin. This, in fact, requires a much longer time than fluorescence (10-4s to up to few s). Therefore, the probability of phosphorescence, and hence the intensity of the phosphorescence spectrum, is very low due to high possibility of radiationless deactivation.

14. Quantum Yield and Efficiency
The quantum yield or efficiency of fluorescence is the ratio of the number of fluorescing molecules to the total number of excited molecules. For highly fluorescent molecules, a quantum efficiency approaching one can be obtained. The quantum efficiency can be represented by the relation:
F = kFL/(kFL + kISC + kIC + kEC + kPD + kdiss)
Phosphorescence quantum efficiency is defined in the same manner

15. The transitions most important in luminescence spectroscopy are n-p
The transitions most important in luminescence spectroscopy are n-p* and p-p*. However, fluorescence is encountered more often in molecules having p-p* transitions since this transition has a higher quantum efficiency in terms of a higher molar absorptivity and a shorter lifetime (10-7 – 10-9s) than the n-p* transition which has a longer lifetime (10-5 – 10-7s). Once again, a longer lifetime means a lower luminescent probability due to increased possibility of radiationless deactivation.

16. Variables That Affect Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
Factors affecting fluorescence and phosphorescence include both environmental and structural factors. Some of the important factors are discussed below:
Fluorescence and Structure
As indicated earlier, best luminescence is observed for molecules with p bonds and preferably those having aromatic rings due to presence of low energy p-p*. However, some heterocyclic aromatic rings do not show fluorescence. These include pyridine, furan, pyrrole, and thiophene

17. The lack of fluorescence in such molecules is largely believed to be due to existence of a low lying n-p* transition that rapidly converts the excited molecule to the triplet state and prevent fluorescence. However, fusion of a phenyl ring to any of the above molecules increase the possibility of the p-p* transitions and thus increase the fluorescence quantum efficiency.

18. Substitution of halogens to the aromatic ring has important influence on the fluorescent signal where a decrease in fluorescence is observed with an increase in the atomic weight of the halogen and a subsequent increase in phosphorescence. This is referred to as the heavy atom effect where promotion of intersystem crossing takes place. In addition, substitution of a carbonyl or carboxylic acid groups decreased fluorescence due to enhancement of intersystem crossing.

19. Effect of Structural Rigidity
The nature of the chemical structure of a molecule in terms of flexibility and rigidity is of major influence on the fluorescence and phosphorescence signal. Molecules that have high degree of flexibility will tend to decrease fluorescence due to higher collisional probability. However, more rigid structures have lower probability of collisions and thus have more fluorescence potential. Biphenyl has very low fluorescence quantum efficiency (~ 0.2) while fluorine has a quantum efficiency close

20. In addition, some metal complexes have higher fluorescence efficiency than do the ligands; also as a result of increased structural rigidity. For example, the fluorescence intensity of 8-hydroxyquinoline is increased to a large extent in presence of zinc ions, due to more rigid complex formation.

21. Effect of Solvent Nature
Solvents characteristics have important effects on luminescent behavior of molecules. Three main effects can be recognized:
a. Solvent Polarity
A polar solvent is preferred as the energy required for the p-p* is lowered.
b. Solvent Viscosity
More viscous solvents are preferred since collisional deactivation will be lowered at higher viscosities.
c. Heavy Atoms Effect
If solvents contain heavy atoms, fluorescence quantum efficiency will decrease and phosphorescence will increase.

22. Effect of Temperature
Higher temperatures result in larger collisional deactivation due to increased movement and velocity of molecules. Therefore, lower temperatures are preferred.
Effect of pH
The pH of the solution is a very important factor that influences luminescence. For example, aniline shows fluorescence while aniline in acid solution (anilinium ion) does not. Most compounds luminesce in basic or slightly basic solutions while some show fluorescence in acidic medium. It is therefore important to adjust the pH so that maximum luminescence intensity is obtained. The pH also affects the emission wavelength where usually a longer emission wavelength is observed at higher pH.

23. Effect of Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen largely limits fluorescence since it promotes intersystem crossing because it is paramagnetic. However, dissolved oxygen affects phosphorescence more than it does to fluorescence. Although one would think that as far as intersystem crossing is increased in presence of oxygen, phosphorescence is expected to increase. On the contrary, phosphorescence is completely eliminated and quenched in presence of dissolved oxygen. This may be explained on the basis that the ground state of oxygen is the triplet state and it is easier for an electron in the triplet state to transfer its energy to triplet oxygen rather than performing a flip in spin and relax to singlet state. Therefore, oxygen will be excited and what we really observe is oxygen emission rather than phosphorescence. It is for this reason that oxygen should be totally excluded to be able to detect phosphorescence.

24. Effect of Concentration on Fluorescence
It can be undoubtedly said that the fluorescence is directly proportional to the amount of absorbed radiation where:
F = k(Po-P)
P = Po 10-A
Substitution gives:
F = kP0 (1-10-A)
This relation can be expanded by Mc Lauren series giving:
F = kP0 (2.303 A – (2.303 A)2/2! + (2.303 A)3/3! - (2.303 A)4/4! + ….)

25. Only the first term is important at the very low concentrations used
Only the first term is important at the very low concentrations used. The relation simplifies to:
F = kPo (2.303 A)
F = KPoebc
Where K = 2.303k