1. Intensive Summer Course 2011 University of Iceland, Reykjavik
Strategies in the Arctic: Ilmplications for Small States Dr. Lassi Heininen University of Lapland, Finland Northern Research Forum
Intensive Summer Course 2011
University of Iceland, Reykjavik

2. The early-21st century Arctic
Main themes / trends of the post-Cold War circumpolar geopolitics and IR:
1) Increasing circumpolar coop by indigenous peoples’ organizations and sub-national governments
2) Region-building with unified states as major actors
3) New kind of relationship between the circumpolar North and the outside world
(Arctic Human Development Report, 2004)

4. Special features of Northern security
Technology models of geopolitics
Nuclear safety
Interrelations between the environment and security / the military
Relations between Indigenous peoples and security / the military
Climate change and other environ problems
(Global) Energy security

6. Nuclear safety
Radioactivity as a local and regional pollutant, and an example of environmental ‘awakening’
Risk and threat – military and civilian
Became a special issue for and in international Arctic cooperation between Arctic states
E.g. AEPS, BEAC, AMEC, MNEP
Caused a change in problem definition on security discourse and premise in the Arctic
But how real was / is the change?

9. Behind: First significant geopolitical change
The ultimate aim of state politics: to decrease military tension and increase political stability
From state hegemony and power politics into sophisticated policy, esp. cooperation on environ protection
The used means: trans-boundary cooperation and region-building…
.. and new ‘soft’ institutions - e.g. Arctic Council
As a result: decreased military and political tension, and increased stability and peace
From confrontation to cooperation
A success story – ‘Mission accomplished!’

10. Behind: New concepts of security
The very meaning of security was extended (in discourses) beyond traditional concerns with ‘military’ threats and national security to focus on environmental and human problems
Different discourses and concepts of security with different premises and paradigms
Due to e.g. long-range air and water pollution, nuclear safety and climate change

11. The early-21st century Arctic continues..
A peaceful region with high stability based on a wide intergovernmental and regional cooperation
No conflicts, but disputes on maritime borders and asymmetric environmental conflicts
Major challenges e.g. climate change and long-range air and water pollution, and globalization
Legally and politically divided by national borders and internal waters (of the Arctic states)
Major military structures (nuclear weapon systems) and capability for national defence are still there
Importance of national interests

12. The Arctic States
The role and position of the Arctic states was changed due to the first geopolitical change – the A8+ was defined
The five littoral states with their ministerial ad hoc meetings – the A5 was defined (and the Arctic redefined?)
The states emphasize the importance of the AC but have their own interests, agendas, priorities and policies
They have recently also accepted their arctic/northern strategy/policy
A state still the most important actor in the Arctic, but ..
.. there are new actors (with their interests) and challenges as well as threats
--- The post-Cold War period is over!?

14. Arctic states: summary of the priorities
- Sovereignty and national defence: Five littoral states
- Comprehensive security: Finland, Iceland and Sweden
- Economic development: All the strategies
- Regional development and infra: Most of the strategies
- Transportation: Finland, Iceland, Russia and USA
-- Aviation: Iceland and Russia
- Environment: Most of the strategies
- Governance: All the strategies
-- Safety/Rescue: Finland, Iceland, Norway and Russia
Peoples/Indigenous peoples: Most of the strategies
Science/Scientific coop: Most of the strategies

15. Arctic states: main priorities / objectives
Sove/ Econ/ Trans Envir Gov Peo/ Scien
Can x x+x x x x
DK/Gr x x+x x x
Fin /x x+x x x x /x x
Ice /x x x x x+x x x
Nor x x+x x x+x /x x
Rus x x+x x x+x /x x
Swe x x x x/x
USA x x x x x x
(Heininen, Arctic Strategies & Policies: Inventory & Comparative Study, 2011)

16. International Cooperation
- UNs: Canada, Den&Green, Finland, Sweden, USA
- UNCLOS: Canada, Den&Green, Finland, Swe, USA, EU
- IMO: Canada, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, EU
- AC: All the strategies
- EU: Den&Green, Finland, Iceland, Russia, Sweden
- EU’s ND: Den&Green, Fin, Ice, Nor, Swe, EU
- Nordic: Den&Green, Fin, Ice, Nor, Swe
- BEAC: Fin, Ice, Nor, Rus, Swe, EU

17. Self-identification and (re)definition as an Arctic / Northern country / nation / power
Canada: “the global leader in Arctic science; “The North is central to the Canadian national identity”
Den&Green: the Kingdom as a “major player in the Arctic”
Finland: as an “Arctic country is a natural actor in the Arctic region”
Iceland: “the only country located entirely within the Arctic region”
Norway: “the High North is gradually becoming more synonymous with the Arctic”…“really a Norwegian perspective”
Russia: to “maintain the role of a leading Arctic power”
Sweden: “there are many connections to tie Sweden to the Arctic”
USA: an “Arctic nation” 17

18. Finland
Strategy for the Arctic Region, adopted by the Finnish Cabinet Committee on European Union of the Gvt. (June 2010)
The main substantial sectors of the Strategy:
The environment (‘fragile Arctic nature’)
Economic activity and know-how
Transport and infrastructure
Indigenous peoples

19. Interesting findings Comprehensive and wide (global) perspective
Emphasizes the Arctic as a stable and peaceful area
Recognizes the special features and risks of the fragile arctic ecosystem; supports research as a basis for decision-making
Highest priorities of the Strategy appear to be economic interests (esp. marine traffic and infrastructure)
--- Is there a contradiction?
Supports indigenous participation in international cooperation (no ratification of ILO 169 Convention)
Emphasizes the importance of the multilateral northern cooperation, and supports the AC as the main forum..
.. and the role (and importance) of the EU in the Arctic region

20. Iceland
‘Iceland in the High North’ published by the Icelandic MFA (September 2009)
‘Parliamentary Resolution on Iceland’s Arctic Policy’ with twelve principles (March 2011)
The six highlights of the Report are:
International cooperation
Security through international cooperation
Resource development and environ protection
Transportation
People and cultures
Inter coop on research and monitoring

21. Interesting findings
No emphasis on sovereignty, but rather on international, multilateral and regional cooperation
Security and (maritime) safety through international and scientific cooperation
Emphasis on the importance of resource development, incl. renewable energy and fishing industry; less emphasis on environmental protection
Visions and strong expectations of global trans-arctic shipping routes, and aviation – a potential trans-shipment hub
Emphasis on inter coop on research and higher education
Iceland located “entirely within the Arctic region” – a response to the ad hoc meetings of five littoral states

22. Sweden
A Strategy for policy in the Arctic region (Sveriges strategi för den arktiska regionen), adopted by the Swedish Government in May 2011
The three areas, which are defined as the priorities:
- climate and the environment
- economic development
- the human dimension

23. Interesting findings
Adopted and launched at the same day, when Sweden started its chairmanship of the AC
Much the same priorities (lack of time or ?)
Among the three priorities economic development, much oil and gas, is the most rich and multifunctional, even some sort of top, priority of the Strategy
The Strategy also clearly states that multilateral cooperation in, and dealing with, the Arctic is the main priority for Sweden

24. New threats, challenges or change(s)?

25. Behind: another significant change, or potential threat
A significant multifunctional - environmental, geoeconomic and geopolitical - change has occurred at the early-21st
E.g. growing global interest toward the region and its rich natural resources
E.g. a manifold growth in the geo-strategic importance of the region
Among indicators of the change climate change, energy security, sovereignty (Ilulissat meeting), globalization

26. Reflection/response to the change(s)
Canada: yes
Denmark&Greenland: yes, and no (self-governing)
Finland: yes
Iceland: yes
Norway: not really (Russia)
Russia: no (pragmatic means for domestic politics)
Sweden: yes
USA: yes
-- Global perspective incl: Den&Green and Finland

27. Indicators of the recent change
Climate change and its (physical) impacts
Utilization of natural resources (e.g. shelf of the AO)
Energy security, and options of that
Transportation (e.g. global sea and air routes)
Globalization and flows of globalization
Growing global interest toward the region by powers from outside the region
Growing interest of, and activity by, the Arctic states to (re)define their national interests, and…
… (re)emphasize state sovereignty

29. Globalization in the Arctic
Globalization bringing problems to the North!?
Negative: impacts of climate change, privatization, modernity (‘Cola-Colanization’), new isms, weakening of nation-states’ ability to protect its northern communities (sovereignty) from new threat
Positive: decolonization and growth of regional autonomy, recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights, emphasis on the rule of law and multilateral environ initiatives, new ICT, ‘diversity’ as a global value
(Globalization and the Circumpolar North, 2010)

30. Global problems in the Arctic
Global relations are nothing new - e.g. fur trade, whaling, sealing, and colonialism, exploration, (pre)industrialization
Global security problems – e.g. militarization and nuclear weapon system
Global environ problems: long-range air and water pollution, esp. nuclear safety, and environmental ’awakening’
Also growing consciousness of own identity, world-wide approach by indigenous peoples, democratization, self-government and regionalization
(Globalization and the Circumpolar North, 2010)

31. Climate change
Climate change as a global environmental problem (with its physical impacts and the associated ‘uncertainty’)
Thus, it has a relevant security dimension – either a danger, risk or uncertain thing, threat or challenge
Climate change has already caused a change in Northern geopolitics and problem definition on security discourse(s), and has potential to cause that on security premise(s)
What about security paradigm, or, is climate change a new discipline for ‘disciplining’?
To remind that ‘nuclear safety’ already caused a change in security discourse(s) and premise(s) at the late of 1990s!