1. PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
Psychology is an experimental science. Thus, assumptions must be supported by evidence.
Psychologists use a variety of research methods to study behavior and mental processes, but tend to follow the same general procedure when conducting research.

2. Scientific Method
A method of learning about the world through the application of critical thinking and tools such as observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis

4. 1. Forming a Research Question
Research questions are best directed toward behavior.
Psychological construct—cannot be seen or measured directly (it can be assumed that it is present)

5. 2. Forming a Hypothesis.
An educated guess, the accuracy of a hypothesis must be tested by research.

6. 3. Testing the Hypothesis
Because psychology is a science, psychological knowledge rests on carefully examined human experience.
A hypothesis cannot be considered to be correct until it has been scientifically tested and proven

7. 4. Analyzing the Results
After testing the hypothesis, ask what the findings mean.
Psychologists must decide which data supports their hypothesis and which data does not.

8. 5. Drawing Conclusions
These conclusions are useful in the development and validation of theories in psychology
When observations do not support the hypotheses, you must change your theories or beliefs.
Psychologists must be willing to adjust or modify their hypotheses.

9. Replication
For the findings of a study to be confirmed, the study must be replicated—it must be repeated and it must produce the same results as before.

10. New Questions
The findings of a research study are likely to lead to new research questions.
Once new questions have been asked, the process begins all over again.

11. The Survey Method
gathering information by asking people directly about a particular subject .
Survey
Psychologists conduct surveys by:
1. Asking people to fill out written questionnaires.
2. Interviewing people orally.

12. Reasons for inaccurate findings
People may not be honest about their attitudes or behavior.
Some people may fear that their responses will not be kept confidential.
Respondents may try to please the interviewers by saying what they think the interviewers want to hear.

13. Populations and Samples
Target population
-who do you want to know something about?
Random Sample
-equal chance of being picked
Stratified Sample
-proportional representation

14. Generalizing Results
Characteristics that researchers must take into account:
1. The gender of the individuals in the sample.
2. Part of the country where people live.
3. Socioeconomic backgrounds.

15. Confirmation Bias

16. Participant Bias
Tendency for research participants to behave in a certain way b/c they know they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants.
Hawthorne Effect- do what you think the researchers want you to do

17. Volunteer Bias Reasons for volunteer bias:
1. Volunteers are usually more willing than other people to disclose personal information.
2. Volunteers may be more interested in research than people who do not volunteer.
3. They may have more spare time to participate in research studies than other people.

18. Methods of Observation
Case-Study
Longitudinal
Testing
Method
Cross-
Sectional
Laboratory-
Observation
Naturalistic-
Observation

19. Observational Methods Jigsaw
Blue- naturalistic observation
Purple- case studies
Yellow- testing
Orange- longitudinal
Green- cross-sectional
Red- lab observation
Only read about & answer these questions for your color! READ YOUR ENTIRE SECTION!
Define the method
Provide an example of what it would look like
Advantages and Disadvantages
Example: Naturalistic observation would be where you would go to a daycare and watch children in their natural environment to see how they react to violence on TV.
Use pages in book

20. Analyzing Observations
Correlation
A measure of how closely one thing is related to another.
The stronger the correlation between two things, the more closely those two things are related.
Positive correlation- both variables do the same thing- either increase or decrease
Negative correlation- as one variable increases the other one decreases

21. Positive vs. Negative Correlations

23. Limits on correlation
Correlation describes relationships
Correlation does not reveal cause and effect.

24. Positive or Negative
If students listen to music while studying, they will have a higher GPA.
If children watch less television, their memory improves.
The more children read, the more vocabulary words they know.
If you floss, you will have fewer cavities.
If you eat less calories, you will lose weight.
If you exercise more, you will lose weight.

25. Interpret this quote…
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen, but to think what nobody else has thought”
~ Albert Szent-Gyorgi

26. Experimental Method Experiment
Answers questions about cause and effect
In an experiment, participants receive a treatment.
Researchers then carefully observe the participants to determine how the treatment influences their behavior.

27. Longitudinal & Cross-Sectional

28. Variables Independent Variable (IV)
the factor that researchers manipulate so that they can determine its effect
Dependent
Variable (DV)
The measured outcome of study; the responses of the subjects in a study.
Confounding
or Extraneous Variable
Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment.

29. Dependent Variable
the variable the experimenter measures in order to see if it was affected by the independent variable
The “effect variable”- its change depends on the independent variable
Example: When students watch more television, their GPA will decrease

30. Independent Variable
The variable that the researcher manipulates in order to examine its effect on the dependent variable.
The “cause variable”- it causes something to happen
Example: When students watch more television, their GPA will decrease.

31. Experimental and Control Groups
Experimental group
—receive the treatment.
Control group
—do not receive the treatment.
Placebo
—a substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person’s belief in it.

32. The Placebo Effect
The control group receives the placebo!
It’s like a trick!
Examples
Alcohol studies, depression meds

33. “If this doesn’t help, don’t worry, it’s only a placebo.”
Placebo Cartoons
“If this doesn’t help, don’t worry, it’s only a placebo.”

34. Blind Studies
Single Blind Study- participants do not know which group they are in, but the experimenters do.
-Prevents bias in the participants
Double Blind Study- participants and experimenters are unaware of who received treatment.
-Prevents participant &
researcher bias in both

35. Single vs. double blind

36. Diet Coke and Mentos Experiment
Leave items in classroom
Be quiet in the hallway
Stay away from windows
Be prepared to answer the questions about it when we come back.

37. IV=Absence or Presence of Treatment DV=Measure of Effect
IV/DV Worksheet
Remember:
IV=Absence or Presence of Treatment
DV=Measure of Effect

38. Central Tendency Mean: Median: 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 9= 2 Mode:
1, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 12, 12, 17= 6

39. Standard Deviation
The amount, on average, that each score differs from the mean. -2 -1 1 2
Or how much each score is different from the average score.

40. Ethical Issues Ethics – standards for proper and responsible behavior
Psychologists follow ethical standards to promote the dignity of the individual, foster human welfare, and maintain scientific integrity.

41. Ethical standards prevent scientists from undertaking research or treatments that will be harmful to human participants.
Ethical guidelines have been established by the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a scientific and professional organization of psychologists.

42. Research with People
Ethical standards limit the type of research that psychologists may conduct.
APA guidelines provide a number of provisions that detail what is needed to make a study ethical. These guidelines include two important principles: confidentiality and informed consent
Confidentiality. The records of research participants and clients are private.

43. Informed Consent. People agree, or consent, to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been given the choice of whether or not to participate.
---when participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred

44. Deception. Psychologists may use deception only under specified conditions:
---when they believe that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm
---when they believe that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research

45. Research with Animals
Sometimes, psychologists and other scientists conduct research that may be harmful to animals. Such studies use animals because they cannot be carried out with people for ethical reasons.
Psychologists use animals only when there is no alternative and when they believe that the potential benefits outweigh the harm.

46. Only a small percentage of all psychological studies involve animals.
The APA has rules of ethics for how animals used in research should be treated.
Controversy continues to surround the use of animals in scientific research.

47. Ethics in Using Data
Psychologists follow strict rules about ethics in how they produce, store, and present their data.
Researchers need to be as objective as possible in planning their study, in collecting their data, and in analyzing their data.
When information collected by researchers contradicts their hypothesis, they must be willing to discard their hypothesis in light of the evidence.