2. Mini Quiz
1. Data that derive from the researcher's direct observation of what the subject does in some predefined context are
a. L data.
b. I data.
c. S data.
d. B data.

3. Mini Quiz
2. _____________________ ask a respondent to interpret a meaningless, ambiguous stimulus in order to access the inner workings of the person's mind.
a. Rationally constructed tests
b. Projective tests
c. Factor analytic tests
d. Objective tests

4. Mini Quiz
3. The basis of the _____________ method of test construction is to come up with items that seem directly, obviously, and logically related to what it is you wish to measure.
a. rational
b. empirical
c. philosophical
d. factor analytic

5. Mini Quiz
4. For any rationally constructed personality scale to work, it must satisfy which of the following conditions?
a. The items on the form must all be valid indicators of what the tester is trying to measure.
b. The person who completes the form must be willing to accurately report his or her self-assessment.
c. Each item must mean the same thing to the person who fills out the form as it did to the psychologist who wrote it.
d. All of the above conditions must be satisfied for the scale to work.

6. Mini Quiz
5) Which one?
A) B
B) D
C) A
D) C

7. Basic Steps
1) Create a test
2) Validate the test
3) Use the test

8. Statistics

9. Correlation

10. Positive Correlation

11. Positive Correlation

12. Positive Correlation
r = 1.00

13. Positive Correlation . . . . .
r = .64

15. Negative Correlation

16. Negative Correlation
r =

17. Negative Correlation . . .
r = - .85 . .

19. Zero Correlation

20. Zero Correlation . . . . .
r = .00

21. Correlation Coefficient
The sign of a correlation (+ or -) only tells you the direction of the relationship
The value of the correlation only tells you about the size of the relationship (i.e., how close the scores are to the regression line)

22. Which is a bigger effect?
r = or r = -.40
How are they different?

23. Practice
Do you think the following variables are positively, negatively or uncorrelated to each other?
Alcohol consumption & Driving skills
Miles of running a day & speed in a foot race
Height & GPA
Forearm length & foot length

24. Interpreting a Correlation
What does it actually mean in “people words”?
Binomial Effect Size Display (BESD)

25. BESD 200 subjects (all sick) Drug given to 100 of them At the end:
100 live and 100 die
If the effect of the drug was .00 – what does that mean?

26. BESD
When r = .00
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 50
100
No Drug
200

27. BESD 200 subjects (all sick) Drug given to 100 of them At the end:
100 live and 100 die
What if the drugs effect was .40 – what does that look like?

28. BESD
When r = .40
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 70 30
100
No Drug
200

29. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 70 30 100 No Drug 200
Thus, if you take the drug you have a 70% chance of living compared to only 30% if you do not take the drug!
BESD
When r = .40
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 70 30
100
No Drug
200

30. BESD How to compute: 200 subjects (all sick) Drug given to 100 of them
At the end:
100 live and 100 die
Drugs effect was .30

31. BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug
100
No Drug
200

32. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 100 No Drug 200
1) Compute cell values if r = .00
BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug
100
No Drug
200

33. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 50 100 No Drug 200
1) Compute cell values if r = .00
BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 50
100
No Drug
200

34. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 50 100 No Drug 200 1) Drop the decimal (30)
2) Divide by 2 (30 / 2 = 15)
3) Add to number in upper left cell ( = 65)
BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 50
100
No Drug
200

35. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 65 50 100 No Drug 200 Plug in value
Compute other cell values
BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 65 50
100
No Drug
200

36. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 65 35 100 No Drug 50 200 Plug in value
Compute other cell values
BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 65 35
100
No Drug 50
200

37. BESD Alive Dead Total Drug 65 35 100 No Drug 200 Plug in value
Compute other cell values
BESD
When r = .30
Alive
Dead
Total
Drug 65 35
100
No Drug
200

38. BESD Practice
Create BESDs for the following
r = .10
r = .55
r = .80

39. Correlations
Small = .10
Medium = .30
Large = .50

41. Basic Steps
1) Create a test
2) Validate the test
3) Use the test

42. Basic Steps
1) Create a test
2) Validate the test
3) Use the test

43. Validating a Test Is a test measuring what it is suppose to measure?
Not a YES or NO answer
Types of Validity
1) Predictive
2) Concurrent
3) Content
4) Construct

44. Predictive and Concurrent
Called “Criterion-orientated” validity
Does the test predict some type of criterion?
Predictive – criterion is in the future
Concurrent – criterion is in the present

45. Content Validity
Test items represent the entire “universe” of possible items

46. Group Activity What qualities does the trait of extraversion contain?
e.g., assertiveness
Come up with at least 6 qualities
Create one item to measure each quality.

47. Content Validity
Extraversion

48. Content Validity Positive Emotions Warmth Gregariousness
Excitement-Seeking
Assertiveness
Activity
Extraversion

49. Content Validity Have a lot of fun. Make friends easily
Positive Emotions
Love large parties
Warmth
Gregariousness
Excitement-Seeking
Love excitement.
Assertiveness
Activity
Take charge.
Am always busy.

50. Content Validity Not normally established empirically
Established by experts in the field

51. Construct Validity
The test actually gauges the personality dimension being measured.
How can you do this?
First need to determine if its internal structure is correct.

52. Content Validity
Extraversion

53. Content Validity Positive Emotions Warmth Gregariousness
Excitement-Seeking
Assertiveness
Activity
Extraversion

54. Construct Validity
Next, you need to create a “model” of the construct

55. Extraversion

56. Reliable
Talking
Risk taker
Extraversion
Eye-contact
Stimulation
Height

57. Reliable
Talking
Risk taker
Nomological Net
Contains both
*Criterion-orientated validity
*Discriminant validity
Extraversion
Eye-contact
Stimulation
Height

58. Reliable
Talking
Risk taker
-.04
.60
.54
Extraversion
.32
.44
.11
Eye-contact
Stimulation
Height

59. Construct Validity
Uses all types of validity to determine if a test actually gauges the personality dimension being measured
There is actually even more than can be done to examine construct validity
-e.g., “changes over time”
Note: you NEVER get a single number that represents “construct validity”

60. Basic Steps
1) Create a test
2) Validate the test
3) Use the test

61. Basic Steps 1) Create a test 2) Validate the test 3) Use the test
Rational Method
Projective Tests
Factor Analytic Method
Empirical Method
Combination of Methods
2) Validate the test
Predictive
Concurrent
Content
Construct
3) Use the test

63. What is a trait of personality?
A “unit” of measurement
Allport presents 8 Criteria that define a personality trait

64. Traits
1) A trait has more than nominal existence
Traits are real!

65. Traits
2) A trait is more generalized than a behavior
lie
steal
cheat

66. Traits 2) A trait is more generalized than a behavior lie steal
Honesty
cheat

67. Traits 2) A trait is more generalized than a behavior
There are systems of behaviors
Traits my embrace anywhere between 2 to hundreds of behaviors

68. Traits 3) A trait is dynamic
A trait CAUSES behavior, it is not just a summary of behavior
lie
steal
YES!
Honesty
cheat

69. Traits 3) A trait is dynamic
A trait CAUSES behavior, it is not just a summary of behavior
lie
steal
NO!
Honesty
cheat

70. Traits
4) The existence of a trait my be established empirically or statistically
Statistical techniques can be used to examine coherence among behaviors

71. Traits 5) Traits are only relatively independent of each other
It will be difficult to isolate “fundamental” traits that are completely independent of each other

72. Traits
6) A trait of personality, psychologically considered, is not the same as a moral quality.

73. Traits
7) Acts, and even habits, that are inconsistent with a trait are not proof of the non-existence of the trait
Not realistic to expect perfect consistency
Some traits not important in some people
Traits interact with each other within a person
Context also determines behavior

74. Traits
8) A trait may be viewed either in the light of the personality which contains it, or in the light of its distribution in the population at large.
Some traits are unique and some are universal
Can examine either
Universal traits across people
Unique blends of traits within a person

76. Using Traits to Understand Behavior
Different approaches:
The Single-Trait Approach
The Many-Trait Approach
The Essential-Trait Approach
The Simultaneous-Trait Approach

77. The Single Trait Approach
An in-depth research program of a single trait

78. Questionnaire

79. Add score
Reverse key
2,4,6,8,10,12,14

80. Authoritarianism Historical context Philosophical roots
Nazi Germany
Philosophical roots
Fromm
To avoid choices people turn their will over to external authorities
“I am just following orders”
In the 1930s created the “F – Scale”

81. Authoritarianism

82. Conventionalism
Authoritarianism

83. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarianism

84. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Authoritarianism

85. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Anti – ‘intraception”
Authoritarianism

86. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Anti – ‘intraception”
Authoritarianism
Superstition

87. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Anti – ‘intraception”
Authoritarianism
Superstition
Power and toughness

88. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Anti – ‘intraception”
Authoritarianism
Superstition
Destructiveness and cynicism
Power and toughness

89. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Anti – ‘intraception”
Authoritarianism
Projectivity
Superstition
Destructiveness and cynicism
Power and toughness

90. Authoritarian submission
Conventionalism
Authoritarian aggression
Sexual repression
Anti – ‘intraception”
Authoritarianism
Projectivity
Superstition
Destructiveness and cynicism
Power and toughness

91. Authoritarianism
Note how this trait ties together many diverse behaviors
Also note how it can explain inconsistencies in behavior
A person VERY respectful to a superior may be cruel to those who rank lower

92. Authoritarianism Over 4,000 articles on this trait! Findings:
No relation between authoritarianism and political party (note: communism findings)
Note: not conservatism, but pseudoconservatism
e.g., taxes abolished, no trials, etc.

93. Authoritarianism Findings:
Society is in turmoil, authoritarians more likely to support “strong” political candidates
When standard of living declines authoritarians more likely to favor restrictions of welfare and bans on abortion

94. Authoritarianism Roots: Child-rearing practices Genetic
Regularly and severely punished
Learn to fear, obey, and be unquestioning of authority
Genetic
Biological siblings = .35
Adopted siblings = .05