1. -Goals of Psychology-
Describe
Explain
Predict
Change

2. -Scientific Method- Step 1 Review the Literature Step 2 Step 6
Build a Theory
Step 2
Develop a Testable Hypothesis
(must be operationally defined*)
*An operational definition is stated in observable, measurable terms that allow for duplication.
Step 3
Design the Study and
Collect the data
Step 5
Publish, Replicate,
and Seek
Scientific Review
Step 4
Analyze the Data
And accept or
Reject the Hypothesis

3. -Descriptive Research-
Naturalistic observation
-observe behavior in a natural environment
Surveys
-Participants answer questions
Case studies
-in-depth study of one individual.
Purpose is to observe, collect, and record data.
Easy to collect data
Little or no control over confounding variables.
Researcher and participant biases are problems.

4. -Surveys- Saying vs. doing
What would you do if someone confessed to a murder in a chat room?
60% said they would notify the police
When this actually occurred in a group of 200, 3 people responded
Wording Effects
“government censorship” – (27%)
“more restrictions on what is shown on TV” – (66%)
Are you interested in plants and trees? (77%)
Are you interested in Botany? (39%)
Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama

5. -Biases-
Hindsight bias – Something is always obvious after it has happened. We trust information without confirming it for ourselves.
Overconfidence phenomenon – you overestimate the accuracy of current knowledge (thinking within the box).
The false consensus bias – we think people hold similar opinions more than they do.

6. -Correlational Research-
Correlation is the relationship between two variables.
Positive correlation – both values increase
Negative correlation –
One variable increases, while the other decreases.
Correlational Coefficient – strength of the relationship
0= no relationship
+ or – 1 = perfect relationship
Examples: SAT scores and success in college; Red wine and heart attacks; Prejudice and age; length of marriage and hair loss.

7. “CORRELATION does not mean CAUSATION!”
It allows us only to predict!

8. -Different Types of Studies-
Longitudinal Studies
Periodic tests on the same participants over a number of years.
Cross-Sectional Studies
Participants are often divided into subgroups.
What are the disadvantages of each type of study?
Too long - Delays Diagnosis
High attrition rates
Hard to predict causation
Many intervening variables

9. -Experimental Research-
Purpose is to identify cause and effect through the manipulation of variables.
Independent Variables - what the experimenter manipulates
Dependent Variables - what experimenter measures
Experimental Controls - control group, experimental group, avoid extraneous variables
Disadvantages: artificial setting, practical limitations experimenter and participant biases, and ethical concerns.

10. -Bias in Research- Bias is any condition that distorts data
Experimenter bias – predisposed beliefs of the experimenter can confound the research findings.
--Creates a self-fulfilling prophesy
Subject bias – subjects change behavior
Ex. Hawthorne effect – a subject’s behavior changes because of awareness of being studied.
Placebo effect – subject’s expectations lead them to believe some change has occurred.

11. -Experimental Safeguards-
Experimenter
Bias
Participant
Bias
Blind (masked) observers – who’s not the researcher
Single-blind (masked) study – either the experimenter or subjects are unaware of who is receiving the treatment.
Double-blind (masked) study - neither experimenter or subject is aware.
Random sampling
Random assignment
Confidentiality
Placebo

12. -Interpreting the Data-
The goal is to find the number that best represents the data.
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode
The most common score, or the score with the highest frequency
Median
Divides the distribution in half.
50% above and 50% below
Mean
Arithmetic average.
Add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores

13. -Ethics in Research-
Approval of American Psychological Association (APA)
Informed Consent
Confidentiality
Minimize risk and discomfort
Fairness and Deception
Informed consent
Debriefing
Animal Research?
The Milgram experiment was the impetus for these ethical guidelines