1. Viral hepatitis Abdullah Alyouzbaki
Lecturer of Medicine/Mosul Medical College
Gastroenterologist and hepatologist
14/3/2016

2. Viral hepatitis
This must be considered in anyone presenting with hepatitic liver blood tests i,e high transaminases.
All these viruses cause illnesses with similar clinical and pathological features and which are frequently anicteric or even asymptomatic.

4. Clinical features of acute viral hepatitis
A non-specific prodromal illness characterized by headache, myalgia, arthralgia, nausea and anorexia usually precedes the development of jaundice by a few days to 2 weeks.
Vomiting and diarrhea may follow, and abdominal discomfort is common.
Dark urine and pale stools may precede jaundice.
There are usually few physical signs. The liver is often tender but only minimally enlarged. Occasionally, mild splenomegaly and cervical lymphadenopathy are seen.

5. Acute hepatitis : Investigations
A hepatitic pattern of LFTs develops, with serum transaminases typically between 200 and 2000 U/L in an acute infection .
The plasma bilirubin reflects the degree of liver damage.
The ALP rarely exceeds twice the upper limit of normal.
Prolongation of the PT indicates the severity of the hepatitis.
The white cell count is usually normal with a relative lymphocytosis.
Serological tests confirm the etiology of the infection.

6. Acute hepatitis : Management
Most individuals do not need hospital care.
Drugs such as sedatives and narcotics, which are metabolized in the liver, should be avoided.
No specific dietary modifications are needed.
Alcohol should be avoided during the acute illness.
Elective surgery should be avoided as there is a risk of post-operative liver failure.
Liver transplantation is very rarely indicated for acute viral hepatitis complicated by acute liver failure.

7. Acute hepatitis

8. Hepatitis A
The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is highly infectious and is spread by the fecal–oral route. Infected individuals , who may be asymptomatic, excrete the virus in feces for about 2–3 weeks before the onset of symptoms and then for a further 2 weeks or so.
Infection is common in children but often asymptomatic, and so up to 30% of adults will have serological evidence of past infection but give no history of jaundice.
Infection is also more common in areas of overcrowding and poor sanitation.

9. Hepatitis A : Investigations
Anti-HAV is important in diagnosis, as HAV is only present in the blood transiently during the incubation period.
Anti-HAV of the IgM type is diagnostic of an acute HAV infection.
Anti-HAV of the IgG type is of no diagnostic value.

10. Hepatitis A : Management
Infection in the community is best prevented by improving social conditions, especially overcrowding and poor sanitation.
active immunization with an inactivated virus vaccine.
Immunization should be considered for individuals with chronic hepatitis B or C infections.
Immediate protection by immune serum globulin if this is given soon after exposure to the virus.
Immune serum globulin can be effective in an outbreak of hepatitis, in a school or nursery.
People travelling to endemic areas are best protected by vaccination.

11. Hepatitis B

12. Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is one of the most common causes of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma worldwide.
Approximately one-third of the world’s population have serological evidence of past or current infection with hepatitis B and approximately 350–400 million people are chronic HBsAg carriers.
Hepatitis B may cause an acute viral hepatitis; however, acute infection is often asymptomatic.
Many individuals with chronic hepatitis B are also asymptomatic.

13. Hepatitis B
The risk of progression to chronic liver disease depends on the source and timing of infection .
Vertical transmission from mother to child in the perinatal period is the most common cause of infection worldwide and carries the highest risk of ongoing chronic infection.

14. Hepatitis B

15. Hepatitis B

16. Hepatitis B

17. Hepatitis B

18. Hepatitis B

19. Hepatitis B :Viral load and genotype
HBV-DNA can be measured by PCR in the blood. Viral loads are usually in excess of 105 copies/mL in the presence of active viral replication.
Measurement of viral load is important in monitoring antiviral therapy.
Specific HBV genotypes (A–H) can also be identified using PCR.

20. Management of acute hepatitis B
Treatment is supportive, with monitoring for acute liver failure, which occurs in less than 1% of cases.
There is no definitive evidence that antiviral therapy reduces the severity or duration of acute hepatitis B.
Full recovery occurs in 90–95% of adults following acute HBV infection.
The remaining 5–10% develop a chronic hepatitis B infection that usually continues for life.

21. Recovery from acute HBV infection occurs within 6 months and is characterized by the appearance of antibody to viral antigens.
Persistence of HBeAg beyond this time indicates chronic infection.
Combined HBV and HDV infection causes more aggressive disease.

22. Management of chronic hepatitis B
Treatments are still limited, as no drug is consistently able to eradicate hepatitis B infection completely (i.e. render the patient HBsAg-negative).
The goals of treatment are HBeAg seroconversion, reduction in HBV- DNA and normalization of the LFTs.
The indication for treatment is a high viral load in the presence of active hepatitis, as demonstrated by elevated serum transaminases and/or histological evidence of inflammation and fibrosis.

23. The oral antiviral agents are more effective in reducing viral loads in patients with e antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B than in those with e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B, as the pre-treatment viral loads are lower.
Most patients with chronic hepatitis B are asymptomatic and develop complications such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma only after many years
Cirrhosis develops in 15–20% of patients with chronic HBV over 5–20 years. This proportion is higher in those who are e antigen-positive.

24. Two different types of drug are used to treat hepatitis B: direct-acting nucleoside/nucleotide analogues and pegylated interferon-alfa.

25. Direct-acting nucleoside/nucleotide antiviral agents
Lamivudine.
Telbivudine .
Entecavir
Nucleotide:
Adefovir
Tenofovir.
Interferon-alfa

26. Liver transplantation:
the use of post-liver transplant prophylaxis with direct-acting antiviral agents and hepatitis B immunoglobulins has reduced the re-infection rate to 10% and increased 5-year survival to 80%, making transplantation an acceptable treatment option.

27. Prevention
A recombinant hepatitis B vaccine containing HBsAg is available (Engerix) and is capable of producing active immunization in 95% of normal individuals.
The vaccine should be offered to those at special risk of infection who are not already immune, as evidenced by anti-HBs in the blood . The vaccine is ineffective in those already infected by HBV.
Infection can also be prevented or minimized by the intramuscular injection of hyperimmune serum globulin prepared from blood containing anti-HBs. This should be given within 24 hours, or at most a week, of exposure to infected blood in circumstances likely to cause infection e.g. needle stick injury

28. Neonates born to hepatitis B- infected mothers should be immunized at birth and given immunoglobulin.
Hepatitis B serology should then be checked at 12 months of age.

29. Hepatitis D (Delta virus)
has no independent existence; it requires HBV for replication and has the same sources and modes of spread.
It can infect individuals simultaneously with HBV, or can superinfect those who are already chronic carriers of HBV.
Simultaneous infections give rise to acute hepatitis, which is often severe but is limited by recovery from the HBV infection.
Infections in individuals who are chronic carriers of HBV can cause acute hepatitis with spontaneous recovery, and occasionally simultaneous cessation of the chronic HBV infection occurs.

30. Chronic infection with HBV and HDV can also occur, and this frequently causes rapidly progressive chronic hepatitis and eventually cirrhosis.
Investigations:
anti-HDV : initially IgM and later IgG.
Management:
Effective management of hepatitis B prevents hepatitis D.

31. Hepatitis C
Most individuals are unaware of when they became infected and are only identified when they develop chronic liver disease.
Eighty- ninety per cent of individuals exposed to the virus become chronically infected and late spontaneous viral clearance is rare.
Hepatitis C infection is usually identified in asymptomatic individuals screened because they have risk
Although most individuals remain asymptomatic until progression to cirrhosis occurs, fatigue can complicate chronic infection and is unrelated to the degree of liver damage.

33. Investigations:Serology and virology
Anti HCV antibodies : It may take 6–12 weeks for antibodies to appear in the blood following acute infection such as a needle stick injury. In these cases, hepatitis C RNA can be identified in the blood as early as 2–4 weeks after infection. Active infection is confirmed by the presence of serum hepatitis C RNA in anyone who is antibody-positive. Anti-HCV antibodies persist in serum even after viral clearance, whether spontaneous or post-treatment.

34. Molecular analysis: There are six common viral genotypes, the distribution of which varies worldwide.
Liver function tests : LFTs may be normal or show fluctuating serum transaminases between 50 and 200 U/L.
Liver histology: Serum transaminase levels in hepatitis C are a poor predictor of the degree of liver fibrosis and so a liver biopsy is often required to stage the degree of liver damage.

35. Management The aim of treatment is to eradicate infection.
Old regimen : interferon alfa + ribavirin.
New regimen: combination of direct active antiviral drugs.
Liver transplantation.

36. There is no active or passive protection against HCV.
Progression from chronic hepatitis to cirrhosis occurs over 20–40 years.
Not everyone with hepatitis C infection will necessarily develop cirrhosis but approximately 20% do so within 20 years.
Once cirrhosis has developed, the 5- and 10-year survival rates are 95% and 81% respectively.

37. Hepatitis E It is endemic in India and the Middle East.
The clinical presentation and management of hepatitis E are similar to that of hepatitis A.
Hepatitis E differs from hepatitis A in that infection during pregnancy is associated with the development of acute liver failure, which has a high mortality.
In acute infection, IgM antibodies to HEV are positive.