1. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
Property: Takes a large change in E to change temp and state… so water is a stable internal and external environment

2. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
Property: Takes a large change in E to change temp and state… so water is a stable internal and external environment, and evaporation cools surfaces

3. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
ocean
“fresh”

4. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
Positively Affect Buoyancy
Gases (swim bladder)
Low Density Fluids
Fats, Oils
Bone, Cartilage
Shell
Chitinous Exoskeleton
Heavy Ions
“Buoyancy” is a function of relative density of the organism to its environment.
Negatively Affect Buoyancy

5. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
Viscosity of Water
Temperature [°C]
Viscosity [mPa·s] 10
1.308 20
1.002 30
0.7978 40
0.6531 50
0.5471 60
0.4658 70
0.4044 80
0.3550 90
0.3150
100
0.2822
Hydrodynamic shape is adaptive in mobile organisms
Small organisms may exploit viscosity and drag to slow sinking rate

6. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
3. Universal Solvent
Ions and polar compounds dissolve in water, and become available for uptake or for chemical reactions.
- H2O + CO2  H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
- H2CO3 (carbonic acid)  H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate)
- HCO3- (bicarbonate)  2H+ + CO32- (carbonate)
Ca2+ is at maximum solubility in oceans, so it precipitates out with the carbonate as CaCO3

8. Adaptations to the Physical Environment: Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
3. Universal Solvent
4. Water Dissociates
Feldspar minerals:
KAlSi3O8 - NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8
(60% of the Earth’s crust)
Freeing H+ is solution, which can displace other cations bound minerals; this is chemical weathering, and it makes these cations available for bio-uptake (K+, Al+, Na+, Ca+)

9. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
3. Universal Solvent
4. Water Dissociates
5. Water is Adhesive and Cohesive

10. [1]
Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
3. Universal Solvent
4. Water Dissociates
5. Water is Adhesive and Cohesive
6. Water Potential
- mechanical pressure (+)
- gravitational pressure (+)
- humidity pressure (+)
- solute/osmotic pressure (-)
- matrix adhesion effects (-)

11. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. High Specific Heat
2. Density and Viscosity
3. Universal Solvent
4. Water Dissociates
5. Water is Adhesive and Cohesive
6. Water Potential
7. Plants

12. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
7. Plants
Water uptake by roots
Plant use a H+ pump to actively transport H+ out of cell; this causes cation displacement of cations, that either diffuse into the cell or are actively transported into the cell…
Increase solute concentration decreases water potential in cell
Water moves in by osmosis

13. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
7. Plants
Water uptake by roots
Water is transported between root cells through plasmodesmata – cytoplasmic connection through cell walls.

14. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
7. Plants
Water uptake by roots
Cl- ions are actively transported from endodermal cells (pericycle), and water follows into the xylem by osmosis.

15. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
7. Plants
Transport in xylem
Facilitated by capillary action – the combined effects of cohesive and adhesive forces in small tube

16. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
7. Plants
Action in the leaf
a – water flows into cells and vaporizes in spongy mesophyll
b – vapor moves from substomal air space (b) out of leaf (c), drawing more water into substomatal space from xylem
c- under dry conditions, guard cells shrivel, closing the stoma, reducing evaporative water loss

18. Adaptations to the Physical Environment:
Water and Nutrients
A. Properties and Adaptations
8. Animals

19. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. Pigment Absorbances

20. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
1. Pigment Absorbances

21. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
2. C3 Photosynthesis

22. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
2. C3 Photosynthesis
THE LIGHT REACTION
e- acceptor
NADP
NADPH e-
ATP
ADP+P
PS I e-
Water is split to harvest electrons; oxygen gas is released as a waste product.
PS II
2H2O
4e + 4H O (O2)

23. Light Dependent Reaction Light Independent Reaction
The Light Dependent Reaction e-
C6 (glucose)
ATP
ADP+P
6 CO2 e-
Light Dependent Reaction
Light Independent Reaction

24. Light Dependent Reaction Light Independent Reaction
The Light Dependent Reaction The Light Independent Reaction e-
C6 (glucose)
ATP
ADP+P
6 CO2 e-
Light Dependent Reaction
Light Independent Reaction

25. CO2
The Light Independent Reaction C6 C5
RuBP
2 C3 (PGA)
A molecule of CO2 binds to Ribulose biphosphate, making a 6-carbon molecule. This molecule is unstable, and splits into 2 3-carbon molecules of phosphoglycerate (PGA)

26. 6CO2
III. The Light Independent Reaction
6C6
6C5
RuBP
12 C3 (PGA)
Now, it is easier to understand these reactions if we watch the simultaneous reactions involving 6 CO2 molecules

27. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
2. C3 Photosynthesis
THE LIGHT
INDEPENDENT REACTION
6CO2
6C6
6C5
RuBP
12 C3
ATP
ADP+P
10 C3
2 C3 C6
(Glucose)
NADPH
NADP
2 of the 12 PGA are used to make glucose, using energy from ATP and the reduction potential of NADPH… essentially, the H is transferred to the PGA, making carbohydrate from carbon dioxide.

28. 6CO2 6C6 6C5 12 C3 10 C3 2 C3 The Light Independent Reaction C6
RuBP
12 C3
ATP
ADP+P
ATP
ADP+P
10 C3
2 C3 C6
(Glucose)
NADPH
NADP
More energy is used to rearrange the 10 C3 molecules (30 carbons) into 6 C5 molecules (30 carbons); regenerating the 6 RuBP.

29. Review:
Need water (from the xylem)
And CO2 (through the stoma).
Water vapor and waste O2
Are released (through stoma)
Sugars are shunted into the phloem,
Next to the xylem in vascular
bundles, and distributed to the
rest of the plant.

30. Problem:
If the rate of water loss through the stoma
(determined by relative humidity and temperature of air, relative to leaf)
IS GREATER THAN
The rate of water absorption
(dependent on amount of water and soil characteristics determining water availability)
THE LEAF DRIES AND STOMATES CLOSE

31. Problem:
If the rate of water loss through the stoma
(determined by relative humidity and temperature of air, relative to leaf)
IS GREATER THAN
The rate of water absorption
(dependent on amount of water and soil characteristics determining water availability)
THE LEAF DRIES AND STOMATES CLOSE
Water vapor is retained, but:
- as photosynthesis continues, [CO2] declines and [O2] increases inside the closed leaf.
- When [CO2] is low, RuBP won’t bind it anymore and photosynthesis stops. Indeed, RuBP is broken down (photorespiration).
- In hot, dry habitats, stomates close early in the day and C3 plants can’t make enough glucose to survive.

33. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
2. C3 Photosynthesis
3. C4 Photosynthesis
Many plants that live in dry habitats have a modified carbon fixation pathway
Grasses, including important crops like cane and maize

34. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
2. C3 Photosynthesis
3. C4 Photosynthesis
Leaf Anatomy of a C4 Plant
Note that the Bundle Sheath cells ARE surrounded by another layer of tissue – photosynthetic mesophyll

35. C4 - Spatial Separation
Carbon fixation, by PEP occurs in the mesophyll. PEP can bind CO2 even at low CO2 concentrations.

36. C4 - Spatial Separation
Carbon fixation, by PEP occurs in the mesophyll. PEP can bind CO2 even at low CO2 concentrations.
The product, a C4 malate, is transferred to the bundle sheath and dissociates, recycling the PEP and releasing the CO2

37. C4 - Spatial Separation
Carbon fixation, by PEP occurs in the mesophyll. PEP can bind CO2 even at low CO2 concentrations.
The product, a C4 malate, is transferred to the bundle sheath and dissociates, recycling the PEP and releasing the CO2
So, CO2 is pumped into the BSC, keeping concentrations high enough for RUBP to bind CO2 in the Calvin Cycle and produce glucose, even when CO2 concentrations are low in the leaf because the stomates are closed.

38. Whereas C3 plants shut down at high light intensity and temp, C4 continue to photosynthesize

40. Temporal Separation of Carbon Fixation and Calvin Cycle
Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
A. Properties and Adaptations
2. C3 Photosynthesis
3. C4 Photosynthesis
4. CAM Photosynthesis
Temporal Separation of Carbon Fixation and Calvin Cycle

41. Radiation – E emitted from a surface
Conduction – kinetic E trans. By contact
Convection – moving air/liquid (boundary)
Evaporation – exchange of latent E
Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
III. Heat Exchange
A. Pathways of Exchange

42. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
1. Heat Budget

43. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
1. Heat Budget
2. Body Size and SA/V ratio

44. Bergman’s Rule
White-tailed Deer
Bears

45. humans

46. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
1. Heat Budget
2. Body Size and SA/V Ratio
3. Effects of Temperature
Increase metabolism, increase production of metabolic waste
Increase evaporation
Increase water demand

47. Adaptations to the Physical Environment
 II. Light
III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
Concept of flux:
The rate of exchange of energy or matter (water) is a function of:
- SA/V
- energy/matter concentration gradient
- characteristics of the surface (covered by oils or hairs?)
Cushion plants
Cacti

48. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
Reduce limb length as latitude increases
Allen’s Rule

49. increase edge/SA ratios, and increase SA/V ratios - maximize the loss of absorbed heat energy
shade leaf - broad
sun leaf - deeply cut; narrow

50. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
Hairs, spines, feathers…
create boundary layer.

51. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological

52. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological

55. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological

56. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological

57. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological

58. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological

59. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological
3. Behavioral

60. Adaptations to the Physical Environment II. Light III. Heat Exchange
Pathways of Exchange
Effects on Organisms
Adaptations
1. Structural
2. Physiological
3. Behavioral

61. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
Components of fitness?
- probability of survival
- number of offspring
- probability that offspring survive

62. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
2. Relationships with Energy Budgets
METABOLISM
GROWTH
SURVIVAL
METABOLISM
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION

63. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
3. Trade-offs Between Survival and Reproduction
Maximize probability of survival
Maximize reproduction
GROWTH
METABOLISM
GROWTH
REPRODUCTION
METABOLISM
REPRODUCTION

64. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
3. Trade-offs Between Survival and Reproduction
European Kestrels

65. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
3. Trade-offs Between Survival and Reproduction
Cox, R.M., and R. Calsbeek Severe costs of reproduction persist in Anolis lizards despite the evolution of a single-egg clutch. Evolution 64:

66. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
3. Trade-offs Between Survival and Reproduction

67. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
3. Trade-offs Between Survival and Reproduction
- Suppose the probability of adult survival is low for other reasons?
Can wait
Can’t wait

68. Selection favors high fecundity in “fish” living less than four years, but low fecundity for fish living more than four years

69. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
3. Trade-offs Between Survival and Reproduction
- Suppose the probability of adult survival is low for other reasons?
Can vary within a species in different environments: Guppies

70. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
4. Trade-offs Between # offspring and offspring survival
METABOLISM
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION
METABOLISM
A few large, high prob of survival
Lots of small, low prob of survival

71. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
4. Trade-offs Between # offspring and offspring survival – Lack Hypothesis
Again, diminishing returns

72. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs
4. Trade-offs Between # offspring and offspring survival – Lack Hypothesis
Varies within a species under different environmental conditions: Guppies

73. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs Timing
1. First Age of Reproduction
As lifespan increases, selection favors a delayed first age or reproduction

74. III. Population Growth – change in size through time
Calculating Growth Rates
B. Life History Redux
- increase fecundity, increase growth rate (obvious) x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0 1
0.5 20 10 2 -
R = 10
T = 1
r = 2.303 x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0 1
0.5 22 11 2 -
R = 11
T = 1
r = 2.398

75. III. Population Growth – change in size through time
Calculating Growth Rates
B. Life History Redux
- increase fecundity, increase growth rate (obvious)
- decrease generation time (reproduce earlier) – increase growth rate x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0 1
0.5 22 11 2 -
R =11
T = 1
r = 2.398 x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0 2 1
0.5 20 10 -
R = 12
T = 0.833
r = 2.983

76. III. Population Growth – change in size through time
Calculating Growth Rates
B. Life History Redux
- increase fecundity, increase growth rate (obvious)
- decrease generation time (reproduce earlier) – increase growth rate
- increasing survivorship – DECREASE GROWTH RATE (lengthen T) x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0 1
0.5 22 11 2 -
R = 11
T = 1
r = 2.398 x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0 1
0.5 20 10 2 3 -
R = 20
T = 1.5
r = 2.00

77. III. Population Growth – change in size through time
Calculating Growth Rates
B. Life History Redux
- increase fecundity, increase growth rate (obvious)
- decrease generation time (reproduce earlier) – increase growth rate
- increasing survivorship – DECREASE GROWTH RATE (lengthen T)
- survivorship adaptive IF:
- necessary to reproduce at all
- by storing E, reproduce disproportionately in the future x lx bx
lxbx
xlxbx
1.0  0 1
0.9 2
0.8
200
160
320 3
0.7
100 70
210 4 -
R = 230
T = 2.30
r = 2.36
Original r = 2.303

78. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs Timing
1. First Age of Reproduction
2. Parity: How Often to Reproduce
- Semelparous vs. iteroparous
Semelparity = once
Iteroparity = iterative… many

79. IV. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs Timing
1. First Age of Reproduction
2. Parity: How Often to Reproduce
- Semelparous vs. iteroparous

80. III. Life History Evolution Trade-Offs Timing
1. First Age of Reproduction
2. Parity: How Often to Reproduce
3. Senescence
Why do human have a long post-reproductive period?
The ‘grandmother effect’
Lahdenpera et al., Nature.

81. III. Life History Evolution
Trade-Offs
Timing
Life History Strategies