1. Ethnicity and crime

2. Ethnicity and official statistics
Ethnic minority males are over-represented in official status compared to the percentage of the ethnic minority population
White people are under represented at all stages of cjs
Instead of showing whether members of one ethnic group are more criminal than the other, it shows more about their involvement in the cjs
Black people more likely to be stopped, searched, arrested, to be in prison
Victim surveys: Asian and mixed race are more likely to be the victims of crime, a great deal of crime is instar- ethnic (takes place within rather than between ethnic groups)
Self report study graham and bowling: black and white had similar rate of offending (whites still highest). Self report studies challenge stereotypes that black people are more likely than whites to offend, they do however support the view that Asians are less likely to offend

3. Ethnicity and victimisation
Non-white people more likely to be victim of crime
Victims of murder much higher in black and Asian groups
Police recordings of hate crimes much lower compared to SCEW, therefore showing most go unreported
Those from mixed ethnic backgrounds have the highest change of becoming victims. Reasons for this may be linked to other factors than racism eg being young, male and unemployed
Responses to victimisation by ethnic groups: have involved fire proofing doors and letterboxes, organising self defence campaigns to physically defend neighbourhoods from racist attacks

4. Ethnicity racism and the cjs

5. The police
They have been accused of institutional racism. This is when racism is embedded within the culture of an organisation
The mcpherson report was produced in response to the death of the black teenager Stephen Lawrence highlighted racism within the police force. The way the investigation was carried out was racist- police were unwilling to look for white suspects they believed lawrences black friend had stabbed him due to his skin colour
Philips and bowling: deliberate targeting for many officers due to negative stereotypes- ‘canteen culture’ across hierarchy
Phillips and bowling: members of these communities feel overpoliced and under protected by police as well as excessive paramilitary tactics and surveillance. Failure to respond to racist violence

6. Stop and search
Members of ethnic minorities are more likely to be stopped and searched by the police, yet only a small number of them result in arrest
Black and specifically Asians more likely once terrorism act was in place
Terrorism act allowed police to stop and search vehicles whether or not they have reasonable suspicion
Statistics showed that Asians were more likely to be stopped and searched
Counter terrorism act allowing a 42 day detention without charge

7. Arrests and cautions
Ethnic minorities are in groups that are most likely to be stopped, such as the young, unemployed, manual workers and urban dwellers considered more of a class thing
Ethnic minorities more likely to be arrested than whites and less likely to get cautions
Philips and bowling: canteen culture, racist officers
Reflects differences in offending- type of crime and locations
Low discretion stops: victim description. Morris: white victims more likely to report black offender- racism – police then believe the stereotypes
High discretion: police act without intelligence use stereotypes and interpretation
Over representation in groups more likely to be stopped. Argument is that its class rather than ethnicity

8. In the system
Cps (criminal prosecution services) are the people that decide whether something does to court- many are dropped as there isn’t enough evidence- weak cases are brought forward by the police based on racism and stereotyping
Ethnic minority groups are more likely to go to trial in crown court than magistrates court. Crown court more likely to get a higher sentence- racism?
Black and Asian offenders less likely to be found guilty
Sentences: black offenders were given a greater proportion of custodial sentences – could be due to nature of offence, could also take previous convictions into consideration or racism

9. Prison
¼ of prison made up of ethnic minority groups – prison population
Also get longer sentences for the same type of crime
More likely to be on remand than be able to go home. Similar patterns in usa

10. Sociological explanations of differences in the criminality of ethnic minority groups

11. Left realism: lea and young

12. Argue that statistics reflect real difference in levels of offending, are a structural view- look at inequality and why they offend eg structural opportunities are blocked due to racism
Look at why ethnic minorities commit crimes and their responses

13. 1: marginalisation
Police and political parties do not support ethnic minority groups
They feel powerless and as if their opinions don’t matter
Wider racism in society can lead to marginalisation and economic exclusion
Police can be institutionally racist too or be selectively racist

14. 2: relative deprivation
Media promotes a sense of relative deprivation
It is precisely the similarities between black youth and the rest of society that causes trouble. They claim that the culture of young blacks is distinct from that of the older generation and derives more from the expectations and aspirations of British society than from any hangover from west Indian society. It is precisely high aspirations compared with their parents, for material goods and style of life- yet the reality of their life in Britain is one where they are unlikely to legally achieve their aspirations

15. 3: subcultures
As a response to marginalisation and relative deprivation
Leads to deviant subcultures. High levels of utilitarian crime due to poverty- survival / non utilitarian crimes eg violence could be argued it is a political response because they seek change
Cohen: status frustration: lack of legitimate opportunity structures. Afro Caribbean boys – low achievement, high truancy levels, unable to gain status in society through legitimate means so turn to gangs and criminal activity to achieve an alternative status hierarchy

16. Evaluation of left realism
Asian groups face much racism but are low offenders- are better at coping with racism- self denying prophecy

17. Neo Marxism

18. Hall: the policing crisis
Argues that the 70s saw a moral panic and black muggers that served the interests of capitalism
Argues that the ruling class are normally able to rule the subordinate classes through consent. However, in times of crisis this becomes more difficult
In the early 70s, british capitalism was experiencing a crisis- high inflation and rising unemployment were provoking widespread industrial unrest and strikes
At such times, when opposition to capitalism begins to grow, the ruling class may need to use force to tackle control
However, the use of force needs to be seen as legitimate or it may provoke more widespread resistance
Then also emerged a media driven moral panic about the supported growth of a new crime: mugging and a new name for street robbery with violence. Hall et al noted that there was no evidence of a significant increase in this crime at the time. Mugging came to be associated with black youth
The myth of the black mugger served as a scape goat/folk devil to distract attention from the true cause of problems such as unemployment – the capitalist crisis
The black mugger came to symbolise the disintegration of social order (the feeling that the old british way of life was coming apart at the seams) by presenting black youth as a threat to society
Moral panic divided w/c and weakened opposition to capitalism
Increased public support for more stronger authoritarian rule

19. Evaluation of Marxism Fairs to look at the real reason for crime
‘End of capitalism’ didn’t end relationship between black youth and criminality
Similar can be seen during the banking crisis and immigration – scare mongering

20. Right realism

21. Murray
Breakdown of the family- underclass, inadequate socialisation, afro Caribbean families more likely to have single mother families- lack of paternal discipline- turn to crime

22. Recent approaches

23. Neighbourhood: fitzgerald et al
Examined the role of the neighbourhood factors in explaining street robbery and the involvement of black youths in street robbery
They found that rates were highest in very poor areas and where very deprived young people come into contact with more affluent groups
Young blacks were more likely to live in these areas and to be poor
However, whites were affected by these factors were also more likely to commit street crime. Thus ethnicity was not the cause
However, back people may be more likely to live in poor areas because of racial discrimination and housing

24. Getting caught: sharp and budd
Some groups run a greater risk of getting caught
Sharp and budd found that black offenders were more likely to have been arrested
Reasons included that they were more likely to commit crimes such as robbery, where victims can identify them, and to have been excluded from school or to associate with known criminals- factors that raised their visibility to the authorities