1. Human Behavior
Chapter 10

2. Foragers Band Societies About 50 members
Usually monogamous male-female pairs
Exogamous
Women usually leave their band of birth to marry a member of a neighboring group
Division of labor
Hunting is almost always a male activity
Food collecting is primarily female
Age grades
Young children are often incapable of obtaining the food they eat
The human child is dependent on others
Egalitarian
Social, political, and gender equality
Society based on reciprocity and sharing
No notion of private ownership of land or animals

3. Food Producing Horticulturalists Pastoralists Agriculturalists
Makes use of none of the factors of production
Slash-and-burn
Pastoralists
Herders of domesticated animals
Often live in symbiosis with the herd
Agriculturalists
Intensive farmers
Utilizes irrigation and rigorous human labor
Industrialists
Large scale production of goods through manufacturing, industrialized agriculture, mechanization, etc.

4. Agriculturalists Using land and labor continuously and intensively
Greater labor demands
Domesticated animals
Irrigation
Horticulturalists must wait for rain, agriculturalists control water
Capital investment that increases land value
Pros and Cons
Requires human labor
Lower yield to labor ratio
Does not initially produce more yield
Much greater long-term yield
No need to maintain/defend unused land

5. Culture Culture is learned!
Cultural knowledge is transmitted from person to person and from generation to generation
Humans largely cope with the environment through cultural adjustments
Protoculture
The beginnings of culture
Some non-human primates demonstrate the simplest, most basic aspects of culture
Ex: Japanese Macaques, Chimpanzee tool use

6. Primate Communication
Any act that conveys information to another individual
Frequently results in behavioral change in the recipient
May be the result of involuntary processes or a secondary consequence of an intentional action
Types
Autonomic – unintentional (raised body hair)
Deliberate – intentional (gestures and vocalizations)
Fear Grin
Seen in all primates
Indicates fear and submission
Grooming - picking through fur to remove dirt, parasites, etc.
Serves to indicate submission
Displays – communicate an emotional state

7. Chimpanzee Facial Expressions

8. Primate Language Animal vocalizations are referred to as call systems
May have up to 60 sounds
Even large call systems are restricted to a fixed number of signals
Responses to specific environmental stimuli
Koko - Female Western Lowland Gorilla
More extensive vocabulary - more than 700 ASL signs
Apes are physiologically incapable of producing the sounds of human speech
Evidence for rudimentary primate language
There are skeptics
Linguistic Productivity – process of new word formation
Swan – Waterbird, Ring – Fingerbracelet
Linguistic Displacement – communication on things not present or about the past

9. Kanzi Kanzi, a Bonobo, began using symbols when he was 2 ½ years old
Went to training sessions with his mother but was not taught directly
When novely tested against a two-year-old human, Kanzi scored 75% compared to the human’s 65%

10. Human Communication Nonverbal communication Human language
Looks, touches, poses, etc.
Human language
Full displacement
Relies heavily on productivity
Is arbitrary (onomatopoeia excluded)
Four areas of analysis:
Phonology – the study of phonemics and phonetics (speech sounds)
Letters, syllables, rhythm
Morphology – the study of morphemes, words and their meaningful parts
Word construction
Lexicon – all the morphemes in a language and their meanings
Dictionary or Vocabulary
Syntax – arrangement of words into phrases
Sentence construction
Nouns before or after verbs

11. Grandmother Hypothesis
Primate Life Expectancy
Non-human primate females do not live long after menopause
Human females may live decades beyond menopause
The grandmother hypothesis states:
The presence of postmenopausal females increases the survival rate of children
Based on the idea of kin selection, a woman can increase her inclusive fitness by helping to provide food for her grandchildren

12. Intelligence
Primates are able to recognize each other as individuals, distinguish kin from non-kin, and behave differently towards those of different dominance ranks
Primates can remember past interactions and predict the behavior of others
These skills seemed learned and developed from experience
Two main hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolution of intelligence:
Response to the challenges primates face living in societies
Response to challenges of exploiting new food resources