1. Human Anatomy of the Urinary System
Renal Artery
Renal Vein

2. Urinalysis
Color of urine (clear and pale to deep yellow) is due to urochrome which is a pigment that results when hemoglobin is broken down
Some drugs and vitamins may alter urine color. Cloudy urine is indicative of a urinary infection.

3. Urine pH Usually slightly acidic (pH 6).
Body metabolism and diet can cause urine pH to vary from 4.5 to 8.
Large amounts of protein and whole wheat cause acidic urine
Vegan diets or bacterial infections can cause pH to climb and become alkaline (>7)

4. Urine Specific Gravity
SG is the ratio of the density of substance divided by the density of water.
SG of water is 1.0, urine is

5. Chemical Composition

6. Abnormal components in urine
Glucose – condition is called Glycosuria. Caused by diabetes mellitus or high intake of sugars
Proteins – Proteinuria or Albuminuria. Caused by pregnancy, high protein diets, heart failure, severe hypertension, renal disease.
Hemoglobin – Hemoglobinuria. Caused by transfusion reaction or severe burns
Erythrocytes – Hematuria. Cause by bleeding in urinary tract (kidney stones).
Leukocytes – Pyuria. Caused by urinary tract infection.

7. Benedict’s Test for Glucose
Glucose is a reducing sugar- this means it has a free aldehyde group
CuSO Cu++ + SO4--  
2 Cu++ + Reducing Sugar Cu+         (electron donor)
Cu Cu2O (ppt)
The final color of the solution depends on how much of this precipitate is formed and therefore the color gives an indication of how much reducing sugar was present.
Increasing amounts of reducing sugar
green orange red brown

8. Biuret Test For Protein
 To about 2cm3 of test solution add an equal volume of biuret solution, down the side of the test tube.
 A blue ring forms at the surface of the solution, which disappears on shaking, and the solution turns lilac-purple, indicating protein.
The colour change is due to a complex between nitrogen atoms in a peptide chain and copper (II) ions, so this is really a test for peptide bonds.

9. + Purple (protein present)