1. Photochemical transformation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the marine environment: Simulation experiments and identification
Aasim M. Ali1, Roland Kallenborn2, Leiv K. Sydnes3, Helene Thorsen Rønning4, Walied M. Alarif1,
Sultan S. Al Lihaibi1
1 King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
2 University of Bergen, Department of Chemistry, Bergen, Norway
3 Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, Norway
4 Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Ås, Norway
Introduction
PPCPs are mainly released into the environment via sewage treatment plants (STP). However, many STPs insufficiently retain the majority of PPCP-related compounds; thus, many PPCPs and their transformation products continuously enter the terrestrial and aqueous environments with potential toxic effects on local ecosystems.
Sunlight exposure may eliminate PPCPs via photochemical transformations from contaminated natural aqueous ecosystems (Benotti et. al 2009).
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), using UV radiation in combination with a powerful oxidant such as H2O2 or O3, are today successfully utilized to remove PPCPs from contaminated waters (Kim et al. 2008).
In this study, it is explored if sunlight irradiation is useful to apply for remediation of aqueous environments contaminated with PPCPs.
Method
Analysis & structure elucidation
Internal Standard Quantification using 2H isotope labelled compounds.
Solid phase extraction using Waters OASIS® MCX cartridges (Waters)
Analysis and quantification using LC/MS Triple Quadrupole (Ali et al. 2017a).
Structure verification using LC/MS quadrupole – Time-of-flight Mass spectrometry (Agilent 1260SL/ G6520)
Qualitative identification of photochemical transformation products in seawater (n=6) and fish (n=12) from the Red Sea
Compound
Seawater samples
Fish samples
ACE-152
(-) [6]
(+) [12]
CBZ-180
(+) [5]
CBZ-253
(+) [3]
(-) [12]
CBZ-271
(-) [12}
DCF-226
(+) [6]
DCF-260
Transformation products in Environmental samples.
+= confirmed; - = absent
Our study confirms that PPCPs are present in the Red Sea marine biota. Potential exposure risks through local fish consumption need to be explored in detail. For details, see Ali et al. 2017b.
Results & discussions
Outlook
Photolysis is considered a promising and effective treatment tool for remediation of PPCPs from contaminated waters.
The presence of photolytic transformation products confirmed in seawater and marine fish.
Environmental consequences for identified transformation products unknown.
Selected PPCP compounds (for complete list (16PPCPs) see Ali et al. 2017b)
Irradiation experiments
Experimental design optimised according to Carlson et al
Lamp: 300 W solar simulator (LOT Oriel, Darmstadt , GER)
Exposure concentration: 4 mg/L per compound
Exposure time: 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 150 min
Identified PPCP transformation products
Fish Species investigated: Nile Tilapia = Oreochromis niloticus; Milkfish = Chanos chanos; Common Silver-biddy = Gerres oyena; Golden Snapper = Lutjanus john
References:
Ali A.; et al. (2017a). Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in effluent- dominated Saudi Arabian coastal waters of the Red Sea. Chemosphere 175:
Ali, A. et al. (2017b). Photolysis of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the marine environment under simulated sunlight conditions: irradiation and identification. ESPR 24:
Benotti M.J. et al. (2009) Evaluation of a photocatalytic reactor membrane pilot system for the removal of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds from water. Water Res 43:
Kim I. Et al. (2008) Classification of the degradability of 30 pharmaceuticals in water with ozone, UV and H2O2. Water Sci Technol 57:
Carlson J.C., (2015) Direct UV photolysis of selected pharmaceuticals, personal care products and endocrine disruptors in aqueous solution. Water Res 84,
Acknowledgements
Aasim M. Ali was supported by a travel grant and a PhD scholarship from King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia) which is highly appreciated. Parts of this analytical work was financially supported by the Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Sciences as well as the School of Veterinary Sciences at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU).