1. Skill learning principles and practice
Chapter 10

2. What does a skilled performance look like?
What is a motor skill?
Skill – the ability to do something well

3. Skill classification
Skills are classified to help a coach determine in what order the skills should be learned as well as providing information about how to teach a particular skill.
Skills are classified according to:
How difficult the skill is to perform
The environment in which they are performed
The amount of muscles and muscle groups recruited to perform the skill
The nature of the movement required to perform the skill

4. Basic vs. Complex Skills
Basic Skills
Complex Skills
Easier to master
Transferable between lots of different sports and situations
E.g. Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS)
Generally sport-specific
Built from a basic skill
Take a lot of practice
Require coordination and control
E.g. smash shot in badminton, volley in soccer, tennis serve

5. Fundamental Motor Skills
These involve the basic elements of a particular movement. Children who master these in primary school are more likely to be active and enjoy sporting activities.
Skills normally have many parts to them and the best way to learn them is by breaking them into smaller parts known as a subroutine, the whole skill is called a motor program.
For example; the layup in basketball. You need to be able to dribble, jump and release the ball with the right timing.
Tennis Serve
Grip
Stance
Back swing
Ball Toss
Forward Swing
Ball Contact
Follow through
Have students create their own subroutine for a skill of their choice

6. Fundamental motor skills
Introduced (age)
Mastered (age)
Catch 5 7
Kick 8
Run 9
Vertical Jump
Overhand throw
Ball bounce
Leap 6
Dodge
Punt
Forehand strike
Two-hand side-arm strike

7. Open vs. Closed Skills (environment predictability)
Skills are rarely classified as being totally open or totally closed. They are usually a combination of the two and are placed along a continuum.
Open skills
Closed skills
Unpredictable environment
Timing and placement of performance depends on factors external to the performer
Most team games require these skills
E.g. soccer pass will be affected by your position, your opponents and the weather
Predictable environment
Timing is self-paced to a large extent
These skills tend to be learnt faster (you can make naturally open skills more closed when learning)
E.g. darts

8. Open Closed Darts Heading the ball in soccer from a corner
Free pass in Lacrosse
A serve in squash

9. Gross vs. fine motor skills (movement precision)
A continuum is also used for classifying these skills. Some skills such as cricket bowling involve both fine and gross motor skills when spin is put on the ball.
Gross Motor Skills
Fine Motor Skills
Involve the use of large muscles
These can be learnt at a very early age
E.g. arms and legs – walking, jumping, running etc.
Involve smaller muscle groups
Small amount of movement
Require greater control
E.g. handwriting, shooting, tying shoe laces

10. Fine
Gross
Putt in golf
Clay target shooting
Kicking
Running

11. Discrete, Serial and Continuous Skills (type of movement)
Discrete Skills
Serial Skills
Continuous Skills
Have a definite beginning and end
E.g. kicking a ball, passing a netball
Combination of several discrete skills performed in a sequence
E.g. bowling in cricket, gymnastics floor routine
The same skill performed repeatedly – has no obvious beginning or end point
E.g. running, swimming

12. Continuous
Serial
Discrete
Cycling
Triple Jump
Hockey pass or shot

13. Motor skills can be classified by:
Movement precision
Nature of the movement
Predictability of the environment
All of the above
EXT:
Design a series of at least 5 drills for a skill of your choice, showing the progression from a closed to an open environment

14. Stages of learning

15. Skill Learning
Skill learning occurs in identifiable stages. There are several models that categorise these stages, but the Fitts and Posner Model (1967) is the most recognised.
These stages are called
Cognitive (beginner)
Associative (intermediate)
Autonomous (advanced)

16. Cognitive stage Coaching Tips:
This is known as the thinking and learning stage as it is the first experience the person has had with the skill.
Simple instructions are needed and lots of demonstrations of the correct skill.
Most people do not stay in this stage very long.
Success rate is usually 2-3/10 attempts, when the error rate drops they then start to move towards the next stage.
Coaching Tips:
Only introduce major aspects of the skill
Let the beginner try it out
Provide immediate, precise and positive feedback
Focus on the skill technique, not the result

17. Associative stage Coaching Tips:
The learner has begun to grasp the nature of the skill and is making fewer errors
The simple parts of the skill look fluent, but the more complex parts require attention
They are starting to detect and correct their own errors
Success rate rises to 5-7/10 attempts.
Coaching Tips:
Learn to analyse skills and give constructive feedback
Devise practical opportunities that focus on skill refinement
Allow for individual differences in the rate of learning

18. Autonomous Stage Coaching Tips:
Called ‘autonomous’ as the player can perform the skill ‘automatically’ i.e. they are not consciously thinking about it.
Performances are consistent, fluid and aesthetically pleasing.
Spare attention is directed towards tactics and opponents
The performer has developed anticipation skills for their sport
Success rate is now 9/10 attempts, errors are usually made due to shot selection, environmental conditions and tactical plays
Coaching Tips:
Structure practice sessions to be more game-like and promote intensity
Focus on outcomes rather than process
Provide feedback that focuses on specific aspects of the skill
Anticipation enables the performer to optimise their movement preparation time and reduce their reaction time

19. The skill learning continuum
Cognitive stage
‘What is to be done?’
Associative stage
Refining technique
Autonomous stage
Focus is on strategy and tactics
It is worth noting that for the same sport, a player may be at different stages of learning for different skills

20. Factors affecting skill learning
Sex
Body Composition e.g. fast vs. slow twitch fibres
Age e.g. flexibility and reaction times
Personality
Attitude
Motivation
Emotions e.g. frustration
Confidence
Transfer of learning e.g. hand-eye coordination
Spatial Awareness i.e. knowing what’s happening around you

21. The most recognised method of categorising motor skill learning was developed by Fitts and Posner. Under their system, learning is divided into three stages. These stages are:
cognitive, intermediate and associative
beginner, intermediate and master coach
cognitive, associative and autonomous
associative, autonomous and progressive

22. Learning styles

23. Which style suits you best?
How do we learn?
Everyone learns in different ways. The way somebody learns is called a learning style.
If a coach understands an athletes learning style it is more likely that they will be able to get their performer to reach their maximal potential
In the coaching environment the most important thing to consider is how athletes take in and process information.
According to the VARK model, there are 4 major styles that people learn in.
Visual
Auditory
Reading-writing
Kinaesthetic
Which style suits you best?

24. Reading- Writing Learner
VARK – learning styles
Visual Learner
Auditory Learner
Reading- Writing Learner
Kinaesthetic Learner
Learn through seeing
Learn through listening
Learn through reading
Learn through doing, moving, touching
Demonstrations
Discussions
Books
Skill simulations
Pictures
Lectures
Written notes
Repeated practice
Diagrams
Podcasts
Handouts
Develop a frame of reference for what a movement feels like
Visual aids for feedback
Athletes prefer to talk through plays and strategies
Fitness programs

25. practice

26. ‘Practice makes perfect’
People do not become elite athletes just by undertaking repetitive practice of a skill.
The type of practice is more important than the amount of practice.
The types of practice are:
Blocked or random practice
Whole or part practice
Massed or distributed practice
Mental practice
Visualising the performance, this requires no movement

27. Blocked and Random Practice
Blocked practice
Practicing the same skill continually without changing to a different task
This is good for beginners is the environment is closed
E.g. netball chest passes for 15mins or 50 basketball free throws in a row
Random Practice
Varied sequencing of different motor skills in the same training session
Suitable for associative and autonomous stages
E.g. Volleyball – it is not do 5 digs, 5 sets, 5 spikes, but instead dig, set, spike, dig, dig, spike, set, spike, dig, set, set etc.

28. Whole or part learning
Some skills are better broken down into parts to be learnt or practised, while other skills benefit from being practiced as one whole movement.
For a beginner breaking a skill into segments can be very useful.
Choosing practice type:
Task complexity
If a task is highly complex it is important for the coach to consider how the action is organised if it is to be conducted as part practice
Task organisation
This refers to how dependant each segment is on the previous segment. A cartwheel would loose its rhythm if part practice were applied.

29. Massed and Distributed Practice
Massed practice
Less frequent sessions with little or no rest breaks between repeat performances of the skill
Distributed practice
Shorter more frequent practice periods with rest or alternate activities

30. Two factors need to be considered before deciding whether to practice a task in parts or as a whole. These factors are:
Task complexity and Task compatibility
Task organisation and Task compatibility
Task complexity and Task difficulty
Task complexity and Task organisation

31. Distributed practice involves
Longer but less frequent training sessions
Shorter but more frequent training sessions
Shorter and less frequent training sessions
Longer and more frequent training sessions

32. Kinaesthetic learners prefer:
Lots of demonstrations
A mixture of demonstrations
To practice in pairs
To experience the task

33. A basketballer dribbles the ball without looking at it
A basketballer dribbles the ball without looking at it. This player is in the:
Autonomous stage of learning
Cognitive stage of learning
Advanced stage of learning
Associative stage of learning

34. Which one of the following motor activities consists of only open skills:
Gymnastics routine, tenpin bowling, wind surfing
Golf drive, 100m sprint, a somersault
Boxing, t-ball hit, soccer goal keeping
Archery, netball goal shooting, softball pitch
None of the above