1. Critical Thinking Lecture 4 Rhetoric
By David Kelsey

2. Rhetoric
Rhetoric is a group linguistic techniques people use when their primary objective is to influence beliefs and attitudes and behavior.
Most rhetorical devices consist of emotionally charged words. Consider some examples…
Rhetorical devices are called slanters because they are used to give a positive or negative slant on a subject.
For example, I can call the little old lady across the street ‘elderly’ or I can call her ‘an old bag’.

3. Rhetorical Comparison
A rhetorical comparison is a comparison used to express or influence attitudes.
For example, you might make the point that a person is short by comparing her to an elf or a Chihuahua.
Or I might say the boxers fists are like clubs of steel.

4. Rhetorical Definition
To define Abortion as the murder of an unborn child is to give a Rhetorical definition.
A Rhetorical definition defines a word with the aim of influencing attitude, belief or action.
A rhetorical definition usually smuggles in some prejudice or bias into the meaning of a term.

5. Rhetorical Explanations
A Rhetorical Explanation is an explanation that is meant to influence attitude, belief or action.
Rhetorical explanations usually smuggle in some prejudice or bias.
For example, one could explain that the fighter lost the fight because he was so scared he was a chicken!

6. Euphemisms
A Euphemism is a neutral or positive expression as opposed to one that carries negative associations.
Euphemisms are used to produce a positive effect or to tone down negative associations...
For example, the bags of candy at Halloween that are filled with the ‘fun size’ candy bars.

7. Euphemisms
Most of the time, a Euphemism is used for the purpose of deception.
Examples:
Used vs. Pre-owned
Terrorist vs. freedom fighter

8. Euphemisms
Sometimes using Euphemisms is polite or politically correct.
For example, when someone dies we say things like ‘sorry for your loss’ or ’he has gone to a better place’.
And instead of calling some retarded we call them disabled.

9. Dysphemisms
A Dysphemism is a negative expression as opposed to one that carries positive or neutral associations with it.
Dysphemisms are used to produce a negative effect or to tone down positive associations...
Examples:
Overweight vs. fat cow
Irrational vs. nuts

10. Stereotypes
A stereotype is a thought or image about a group of people based on little or no evidence.
Lumping or grouping together under one name or description.
Stereotypes are a mistake because they almost never have enough evidence to support them. They are often hasty generalizations based on very little evidence!

11. Stereotypes Most stereotypes denigrate a group of individuals.
For example, women are emotional, men are insensitive and southerners are bigoted.
Some stereotypes though can create a favorable impression of a group.
For example, older men are gentlemen and Brazilians are good soccer players.

12. Innuendo
When using Innuendo one utters a sentence or phrase with the intention of communicating what is implied by what one utters.
One suggests something about someone or something without literally saying it.
For example, I might say about someone who is always late ‘oh, he is finally on time today. What a surprise!’
Or I might suggest that someone doesn’t look nice by asking ‘Don’t you want to wear something nicer today?’

13. Innuendo
Using innuendo enables one to insinuate something negative about something or someone without actually saying it.
A classic example from WC Fields: “I didn’t say the meat was tough. I said I didn’t see the horse that is usually outside.”

14. Loaded Questions
A loaded question, sometimes called a rhetorical question, is a question that rests upon something that is unjustified or unwarranted.
A question that makes an unjustified or unreasonable assumption.
For example, imagine a prosecutor asking a man on trial for spousal abuse: have you stopped beating her?
Or imagine a police officer pulling you over and asking you: Were you going to speed like that all the way home?

15. Weaslers
A weasler is a word or phrase, which, when inserted into a claim, helps protect it from criticism by watering it down or by weakening it.
Given that the word or phrase weakens the claim this provides the author of the claim with a way out in case the claim is challenged.
For example, I might say perhaps he was lying, or he could have stolen that money.
You will often see weaslers in ads for diet pills. Such ads will say something like ‘You could lose as many as 20 pounds!’.

16. Weaslers
Here is an example of a Weasler from your text: “Three out of four dentists surveyed recommend sugarless gum for their patients who chew gum”.
This claim contains two Weasling expressions. Can you spot them?

17. Downplayers
Downplayers are words or phrases used to make someone or something look less important or significant.
“So-called” is a standard downplayer.
The words most often used as downplayers are ‘mere’ and ‘merely’.
The use of quotation marks can also downplay.

18. Ridicule
Ridicule (also known as Horse Laugh) is a word or phrase used to get a laugh at the expense of someone or something.
To get a laugh at the expense of someone’s position though is not to raise an objection to that position.
Examples include laughing outright at a claim, telling a joke unrelated to a claim, and using sarcastic language.
My favorite example comes from the character Nelson on the television show The Simpsons who will often just blatantly laugh at someone...

19. Hyperbole
Hyperbole is extravagant overstatement. A hyperbole is a claim that over-exaggerates for effect.
A claim is hyperbolic when its colorful use of language is excessive.
For example, I might stub my toe and describe it as a life threatening injury!
Or I might describe my annoying friend as the most annoying person on the planet!

20. Proof surrogates
A proof surrogate is a phrase or expression used to suggest that there is evidence or authority for a claim without actually citing the evidence or authority.
But A proof surrogate is no proof. Until such evidence is cited it justifies nothing.
For example, I might write ‘Informed sources say smoking does not cause lung cancer’
Or I might say “Studies show that eating McDonald’s for every meal is the healthiest possible way to live”