1. Human Anatomy
Chapter 2
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2. Table of Contents Introduction Terms and Concepts Worth Knowing
Anatomical Position
Directional Terms
Planes of the Body
The Musculoskeletal System
Bones
Joints
Muscles
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3. Introduction: What is the Structure of My Body?
Human Anatomy: The study of the structures that make up the human body and how those structures relate to each other.
Structure determines function: The structures of the human body are well-designed for efficient movement.
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4. Terms and Concepts Worth Knowing
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5. Anatomical Position
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6. The starting reference point for describing the human body
Description
Standing erect
Facing forward
Arms hanging at the sides
Legs straight
Heels, feet and great toes parallel to each other
The starting reference point for describing the human body
It is universally accepted
It is used in all anatomical descriptions
Palms facing forward and the thumbs outward
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7. Directional Terms
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8. Reminder:
All directional terms are based on the assumption that the body is in the anatomical position.
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9. Lateral-Medial Lateral – Away from the midline of the body
– Medial – Toward the midline
– E.g., Your ears are lateral to your
cheeks and your cheeks are medial to
your ears
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10. Distal-Proximal Distal – Further from some specified region
Proximal – Closer to some specified region
E.g., With respect to the trunk, the hands are distal to the arms and the arms are proximal to the hands.
E.g., With respect to nerves and blood vessels, proximal also means "toward the origin" and distal means "away from the origin"
E.g., The colon is the distal portion and stomach is the proximal portion of the digestive tract
Thigh is proximal to the leg
Leg is distal to the thigh
Leg is proximal to the foot
Foot is distal to the leg
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11. Anterior-Posterior Anterior – In front of or front of your body
Anterior Skeleton
Posterior Skeleton
– Posterior – Behind or
back of your body
– E.g., Your lips are anterior
to your teeth and your
teeth are posterior to your
lips
– E.g., In the anatomical
position, your palms are
facing anteriorly
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12. Superior-Inferior Superior – Above Inferior – Below
The collar bone is superior to the rib cage
Inferior – Below
The hip bone is
inferior to the rib
cage
– E.g., Your lips are superior to your chin and your chin is inferior to your lips
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13. Supine Prone Lying on the back E.g., Performing a bench press
Lying face down
E.g., Preparing to
perform a push-up
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14. Planes of the Body
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15. Planes Imaginary flat surfaces that divide the human body
They are used to:
divide the body for further identification of particular areas
describe different movements or actions
Always refer to the body in the anatomical position
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16. Median plane or midsagittal plane
A vertical plane that bisects the body into equal right and left halves
– Sagittal plane is any plane parallel to the median plane
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17. Coronal plane or frontal plane
A vertical plane that bisects the body into front and back
– It is at right angles to
the median plane
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18. Transverse plane or horizontal plane
A horizontal plane that bisects the body into top and bottom
It is at right angles to both the median and coronal planes
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19. Center of gravity
The point at which the median, frontal, and transverse planes intersect
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20. Movements
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21. Movement around a joint may be around any one (or more) of three axesZ
Most movements are found in pairs – for every movement, there is generally a movement that is opposite to it
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22. Flexion-Extension
Flexion – reduces the angle between two bones at a joint
Extension – increases the angle between two bones at a joint
Flexion
Usually a sagittal plane movement
E.g., Biceps curl
Lifting the weight reduces the angle at the joint = flexion
Lowering the weight increases the angle at the join = extension
Extension
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23. Dorsiflexion-Plantar flexion
Modified flexion with respect to the ankle joint
Dorsiflexion – bringing the top of the foot toward the lower leg or shin
Dorsiflexion
Plantar flexion – “planting” the foot
Plantar Flexion
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24. Abduction-Adduction
Abduction – moving a segment away from the midline of the body
Adduction – moving segment toward the midline of the body
Abduction
Frontal plane movement
E.g., The motions of the arms and legs during a jumping jack
Hint:
Abduct = “take away” from the midline
Adduct = “add” toward the midline
Adduction
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25. Circumduction A cone of movement that does not include any rotation
Occurs when flexion-extension movements are combined with abduction-adduction movements
E.g., Tracing an imaginary circle in the air with your index finger
The tip of your finger represents the base of the cone, while your knuckle forms the apex of this conical motion
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26. Rotation Turning a bone along its longitudinal axis
Medial rotation – rotation toward the midline
Lateral rotation – rotation away from the midline
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27. Pronation-supination
Movements related to the forearm and hand
Pronation – when the palm is moved to face posteriorly
Supination – when the palm is moved to face anteriorly (Hint: you can hold a bowl of soup)
Pronation
Supination
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28. Inversion-Eversion Movements related to the sole of the foot
Inversion – When the sole is turned inward (as when you "go over" on your ankle)
Inversion
Eversion – When the sole is turned outward or away from the median plane of the body
Eversion
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29. The Musculoskeletal System
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30. The Bare Bones of Human Anatomy
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31. The function of the skeletal system is to:
provide a supporting framework
protect body organs
Bone is a living tissue complete with blood supply and nerves
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32. Bone
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33. Bone Shape
The shapes of the bones allow them to perform specific functions more effectively
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34. Short Bones:
Include bones of ankle (i.e., tarsals) and wrist (i.e., carpals)
– Serve as good shock absorbers
Carpals
Tarsals
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35. Femur
Humerus
Long bones:
Include femur of the thigh, humerus of the upper arm, and others
Any bone whose length greatly exceeds its diameter
Provide levers for movement
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36. Flat bones:
Include bones of the skull, scapula, ribs, sternum, and clavicle
Largely protect underlying organs
Ribs
Sternum
Bones of the skull
Clavicle
Scapula
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37. Irregular Bones: Include bones of your face and vertebrae
Bones that cannot be placed in other groups
Fulfill special functions
Facial bones
Vertebrae
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38. Sesamoid bones: Include the patella
Oval shape, like a pea, and found in tendons
Femur tendon
Patella
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39. Bone Composition Bone is very strong for its relatively light weight
Cortical Bone
Bone is very strong for its relatively light weight
The major components of bone are:
Calcium carbonate
Calcium phosphate
Collagen
Water
Spongy Bone
Medullary (marrow) cavity
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40. Bone Composition Calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate:
Make up 60 to 70 percent of bone weight
Provide much of the bone’s stiffness and resistance to pressing or squeezing forces
Collagen (a protein):
Gives bone its characteristic flexibility and contributes to its ability to resist pulling and stretching forces
With aging, collagen is lost progressively and bone becomes more brittle.
Water
Bone consists of much smaller proportion of water than other body parts
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41. Bone Classification
According to the degree of porosity, bone can be classified into two general categories:
Cortical bone (low porosity)
Spongy or cancellous bone (high porosity)
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42. Cancellous bone Compact Bone Porosity
High (Low mineral content and high collagen)
Low (High mineral content and low collagen)
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43. Cancellous bone Compact Bone Porosity Structure
High (Low mineral content and high collagen)
Low (High mineral content and low collagen)
Structure
Honey comb
Compact
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44. Cancellous bone Compact Bone Porosity Structure Characteristic
High (Low mineral content and high collagen)
Low (High mineral content and low collagen)
Structure
Honey comb
Compact
Characteristic
Provides more flexibility but is not as stress resistant
Stiffer and can resist greater stress but less flexible
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45. Cancellous bone Compact Bone Porosity Structure Characteristic
High (Low mineral content and high collagen)
Low (High mineral content and low collagen)
Structure
Honey comb
Compact
Characteristic
Provides more flexibility but is not as stress resistant
Stiffer and can resist greater stress but less flexible
Function
Shock absorption due to its better ability to change shape
Withstanding stress in body areas that are subject to higher impact loads
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46. Cancellous bone Compact Bone Porosity Structure Characteristic
High (Low mineral content and high collagen)
Low (High mineral content and low collagen)
Structure
Honey comb
Compact
Characteristic
Provides more flexibility but is not as stress resistant
Stiffer and can resist greater stress but less flexible
Function
Shock absorption due to its better ability to change shape are important
Withstanding stress in body areas that are subject to higher impact loads
Location
e.g., vertebrae
Long bones (e.g., bones of the arms and legs)
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47. Effect of Fitness on Bone
When bones are subjected to regular physical activity and habitual loads, they tend to become more dense and more mineralized
E.g., Right forearm bones of right-handed tennis players are more dense than their left ones due to more frequent use
Inactivity works in the opposite direction, leading to a decrease in weight and strength.
E.g., Loss of bone mass has been noted in bed-ridden patients, inactive senior citizens, and astronauts
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48. The Human Skeleton
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49. Axial Skeleton
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50. Axial Skeleton Skull Sternum Ribs Vertebral Column
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51. Skull Divided into two parts: a) Calvaria b) Face
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52. a) Calvaria Parietal Bone Frontal Bone Occipital Bone Temporal Bone
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53. Calvaria
May be fractured in blows to the skull (e.g., being checked and hitting the skull on the ice in hockey)
Temporal bone:
Most fragile of the calvaria bones
Overlies one of the major blood vessels
If fractured and displaced internally = medical emergency (picture)
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54. b) Facial Bones Lacrimal Bone Nasal Bone Zygomatic Bone Maxilla Bone
Mandible Bone
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55. Facial Bones Cont’d Often broken in contact sports due to rough impact
Some fractures of the maxilla (upper jaw) can leave the lower face separated from the upper face
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56. Lumbar vertebra, lateral view Lumbar vertebra, superior view
Vertebral Column
Sacrum (mid-line region of buttocks)
Coccyx (4 or 5 fused vertebrae of the tail bone)
7 Cervical Vertebrae (of the neck)
12 Thoracic Vertebrae (of the chest)
5 Lumbar Vertebrae (of the lower back)
Lumbar vertebra, lateral view
Lumbar vertebra, superior view
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57. Vertebral Column
Vertebrae are arranged in a cylindrical column interspersed with fibrocartilaginous (intervertebral) discs
Function:
Provides strong and flexible support for the body and the ability to keep the body erect
The point of attachment for muscles of the back.
Protects the spinal cord and nerves
Absorbs shock through the intervertebral discs without causing damage to other vertebrae
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58. Ribs Twelve pairs Made up of :
Bone
Cartilage, which strengthens the chest cage and permits expansion
Curved and slightly twisted, making them ideal for protecting the chest area
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59. Ribs
All 12 pairs of ribs articulate with the twelve thoracic vertebrae posteriorly
Classified into three groups based on anterior attachment:
True ribs
1-7
attach to both the vertebrae and the sternum
False ribs
8-10
attach only to the sternum indirectly, through 7th rib
Floating ribs
11 and 12
attach only to the vertebral column
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60. The Ribs Manubrium Sternal Body Xiphoid Process Costal Cartilages
True Ribs
(1-7)
False Ribs
(8-10)
Floating Ribs
(11-12)
Manubrium
Sternal Body
Xiphoid Process
Costal Cartilages
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61. Sternum Mid-line breast bone
The clavicles and ribs one to seven articulate with the sternum
Sternum – comprised of the manubrium, sternal body, and xiphoid process
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62. Appendicular Skeleton
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63. Appendicular skeleton
Consists of:
1. The pectoral girdle (chest)
2. Pelvic girdle (hip)
3. The upper limbs
4. The lower limbs
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64. 1.Pectoral Girdle Consists of: Scapula (shoulder blade)
Clavicle
Scapula
Consists of:
Scapula (shoulder blade)
Clavicle (collar bone)
Allows the upper limb great mobility
The sternoclavicular joint is the only point of attachment between the axial skeleton and the pectoral girdle
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65. 2. Pelvic Girdle Formed by pair of os coxae (hip bones)
Supports the bladder and abdominal contents
Attachment:
Posteriorly – join with the sacrum
Anteriorly – join to each other
Laterally – join to the head of thigh bone (femur) through a cup-shaped acetabulum
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66. 3. Upper Limb Humerus Radius and Ulna The arm bone Shoulder to elbow
The forearm bones
Elbow to wrist
Radius is located on the thumb side of the hand
When you pronate the forearm, the radius is actually crossing over the ulna – try it yourself
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67. Upper Limb Carpals Proximal Phalanx Metacarpals Phalanges
Middle Phalanx
Distal Phalanx
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68. 4. Lower Limb Femur Patella Thigh bone From hip to knee Knee cap
Sesamoid bone in the tendon of the quadriceps (thigh) muscles
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69. Lower Limb Tibia and Fibula Medial malleolus and Lateral malleolus
Leg bones
From knee to ankle
Tibia is medial and fibula is lateral
Medial malleolus and Lateral malleolus
The distal ends of the tibia and fibula, respectively
Commonly referred to as the "ankle bones"
Can be easily palpated
Fibula
Tibia
Lat. malleolus
Med. malleolus
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70. Lower Limb Tarsals Ankle bones Calcaneus or heel bone Talus
Metatarsals
5 bones of the foot
Unite with the toes
Phalanges
Toe bones
Three per toe, except the big toe – proximal, middle, and distal
Phalanges
Metatarsals
Tarsals
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