1. Lecture # 30
Review of lectures 8-14

2. Anthropological Linguistics
Definition: The evolution of language in human society and its role in the formation of culture is studied in anthropological linguistics.
This is another aspect of language, society and culture.

3. Anthropological Linguistics (contd..)
The structure of language has a social and cultural basis in the same way as other customs, conventions, and codes such as those related to dress and food.
Each culture organizes its world in its own way giving names to objects, identifying areas of significance or values and suppressing other areas.

4. Anthropological Linguistics (contd..)
Anthropological studies have explored the relation between language and culture.
Language is invented to communicate and express a culture.
The language begins to determine the way we think and see the world

5. Literary Stylistics
Definition: The study of the style of literary texts
Taking the view of register (language used in different fields – religious sermons, sports commentary, law etc.), we can study the styles of literary texts.
We may describe its features at levels of phonology, syntax, lexis, etc.

6. Stylistics (contd..) We distinguish one text from the other
We appreciate how it achieves some special features and effects through the use of language.
This kind of study is termed as ‘Literary stylistics’

7. Stylistics (contd…)
The writers try to link ‘what’ is being said with ‘how it is being said’
It is through the latter that writers can fully convey their complex ideas and feelings
Stylistic analysis also helps in better understanding of how metaphor, irony, paradox, ambiguity etc. operate in literary texts (they are effects of language and building up of a coherent linguistic structure)

8. Neurolinguistics (contd..)
Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.
As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methodology and theory from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive science, neurobiology, communication disorders, neuropsychology and computer science.

9. Neurolinguistics (contd..)
Later, Carl Wernicke, after whom Wernicke’s area is named, proposed that different areas of the brain were specialized for different linguistic tasks.
Broca's area specialized at handling the motor production of speech, and Wernicke's area handling auditory speech comprehension

10. Summary Anthropological Linguistics
The evolution of language in human society and its role in the formation of culture
Literary Stylistics
The study of the style of literary texts
Neurolinguistics
the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

11. Some basic distinctions
The most influential:
American school of structural anthropologists – Leonard Bloomfield & after World War II, Noam Chomsky
The European linguists, chiefly among them the Swiss linguist Ferdinand De Saussure

12. Some basic distinctions
The most influential:
American school of structural anthropologists – Leonard Bloomfield & after World War II, Noam Chomsky
The European linguists, chiefly among them the Swiss linguist Ferdinand De Saussure

13. Langue/parole distinction
An individual makes use of his knowledge (langue) to produce actual sentences (parole)
Individuals can communicate with each other because they share the same langue.
Individuals produce different sentences based on the same langue

14. Competence and Performance
Noam Chomsky, an American linguist made similar distinction between competence & performance
Competence- native speaker’s knowledge of his language (mastery of the system of the system of rules)
Performance – production of actual sentences in use in real-life situations

15. Competence & performance
Speaker’s knowledge of the structure of language is the speaker’s linguist’s competence.
The way a speaker uses it- his linguistic performance
Competence – set of principles
Performance – what a speaker does
Competence – kind of code
Performance – the act of encoding or decoding

16. Competence and performance
Moreover, it is not easier to study performance through recording by audio and video devices.
Study of parole gives us data that makes us understand langue and competence better.

17. Sign/ symbol distinction
Language is a system of symbolic signs since there are often very complex associative relationships between the signifiers and the signifieds in a language
Signifiers and signified operate in their relationship with each other

18. Sign/symbol distinction
Saussure’s contributions
Saussure exerted two kinds of influence on modern linguistics: First, he provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which has seldom been questioned.
Second, he influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts.

19. Sign/symbol distinction
Saussure’s contributions
Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concept, i.e. his idea of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, etc.

20. Sign/symbol distinctions
Saussure’s contributions Saussure’s contribution regarding the concepts of sign & symbol distinction brought a new revolution and enjoys a prime importance in the domain of modern linguistics

21. Sign & Symbol distinction
Language made of signs
Linguistic sign has two parts – Signifier & Signified
That which signifies (the word) – Signifier
That which is signified (the concept) – Signified
Sign – composite of both, it consists of the relationship between signifier & signified

22. Sign/symbol distinction
That is why we say that language is a system of symbolic signs since there are often very complex associative relationships between the signifiers and the signifieds in a language
Signifiers and signified operate in their relationship with each other

23. Sign/symbol distinction
Saussure’s contributions
Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concept, i.e. his idea of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, etc.

24. Sign/symbol distinction
Saussure’s contributions Saussure’s contribution regarding the concepts of sign & symbol distinction brought a new revolution and enjoys a prime importance in the domain of modern linguistics

25. Structure/system distinction
Two intersecting threads build up fabric of language.
Language has duality of structure.
At one level we select the elements out of many, at another level, we combine these elements to form a structural unit
With a limited number of elements, we can construct a large number of combinations

26. Structure/system distinction
System – set of paradigmatic relationships between elements
Structure – set of syntagmatic relationships between elements at each level in the language
At level of sounds – phonological system (vowels & consonants) & phonological structure ( determining combination of vowels & consonants)

27. Structure/system distinction
At level of sentence- formation, we have syntactic system (word classes such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb) & syntactic structure (determining combination of these word classes) to enable formation of sentences

28. Structure/system distinction
Substance and symbols (letters of the alphabet) are raw material of language
They become meaningful when given a particular shape or order.
At one level we consider only the form or shape
At another we consider the level of meaning

29. Structure/system distinction
A combination of both gives us a meaningful form.
Diachronic & Synchronic Approaches
Diachronic approach related with development of language over different ages
Synchronic approach related with the shape of language at a specific time without considering its shape in the past or future

30. Generativism Developed by Noam Chomsky & followers in 1950s.
Came as a reaction to behaviourism
Chomsky asserted that language is free from stimulus control
Creativity is a human attribute which distinguishes men from machines

31. Generativism
Generativism is an integrated whole in which the technical details of formalization are on a par with a number of logically unconnected ideas about language and the philosophy of science.
Language free from stimulus control
Human can produce variety of utterances

32. Generativism It’s a rule governed creativity.
We produce utterances with a certain grammatical structure.
Generativism different from Bloomfieldian and Post-Bloomfieldian structuralism.
They emphasized on the structural diversity
Generativists interested in similarities in languages

33. Generativism
Chomsky gives importance to the formal properties of languages & to the nature of the rules that their description requires.
Human language faculty is innate and species –specific
Another difference – Competence and performance.

34. Ganarative Grammar
Generative grammar is set of rules which, operating upon a finite vocabulary of units , generates a set of (finite or infinite) strings, which is well formed in the language that is characterized by the grammar.
The word ‘generate’ does not relate to any process of sentence production

35. Generative Grammar
A generative grammar is the specification of the grammatical structure of the sentences that it generates.
Grammar of a particular language is a system of rules & principles that link sounds and meaning
human beings are endowed with a number of special faculties (mind)

36. Generative Grammar
Chomsky says that there are certain phonological, syntactic and semantic units that are universal.
Human beings are independent of any external stimuli
All human languages are similar in structure.
All human languages make reference to the properties and objects of the physical world

37. Generative Grammar
grammatical similarities between widely separated and historically unrelated languages are as important as their differences.