1. Introduction to Research Methods and Design
Methods of Observing and Interpreting Culture
. . . With Thanks to Dr. Roberta King, Dr. Elizabeth “Betsy” Glanville
and Drs. Sherwood and Judith Lingenfelter.

2. Core Elements of Research
Research Interest
Literature Review
Identify Gaps in Literature
Determine Research Methodology and Design
Conduct Research
Analyze Data
Report Findings
Directions for Future Research

3. Discussion on Language Use
BE AWARE OF DEFINITIONS
Different authors use the same words to mean very different things as we talk about Purpose, Goal, Problem Statement/CRI.
For example, for the research heart of my project:
Elliston: CRI
Leedy and Ormrod: Problem Statement
Creswell: Purpose Statement:

4. Research Interest Inform Research Purpose
Articulate Central Research Issue
Formulate Research Questions

5. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Elliston
Purpose: The purpose of a research study addresses the chief aim or intention of the study (Elliston 2011, 20).
CRI = problem statement: The problem statement should define, clarify, and set the limits of the research intent (2011, 22).
Research Questions come from the CRI
The purpose of a research study addresses the chief aim or intention of the study. After reading the purpose, the mission or reason for the study should be clear. The purpose sets the direction of the research. The purpose should be closely linked with the central research issue (either stated as a problem statement or a thesis statement). The difference between the purpose statement and the problem statement emerges as the problem statement identifies the key variables and relationships that are to be addressed whereas the purpose statement shows the broader direction of the study (2011, 20).
The problem statement should show the relationship between the variables to be studied. One should be able to identify the dependent and independent variables in the problem. The relationship between or among variables is to be examined should be clear. The problem statement should suggest the kinds of questions that are to be raised in the research questions.
Hopkins, 2010

6. Leedy and Ormrod
A problem statement “is carefully phrased and represents the single goal of the total research effort” (Leedy and Ormrod 2010:45)
“The problem or question is the axis around which the whole research effort revolves. The statement of the problem must first be expressed with the utmost precision” (2010:44).
The problem statement leads to the sub-problems, which are all part of the research

7. Creswell
“The purpose statement is the most important statement in an entire research study. It orients the reader to the central intent of the study, and from it, all other aspects of the research follow” (Creswell 2003:87).
The purpose statement leads to research questions and hypotheses.

8. Focus Statement
I want to study ______1_______ in order to ______2______ so that ____3______.
1 refers to your purpose statement
2 refers to your goal
3 anticipates your application intent

9. The Purpose of Program Design
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
The Purpose of Program Design
The PURPOSE of the Research is to anticipate the nature of the data necessary to reach the research goals
The primary rationale for doing the research.
The chief aim or intention for doing this particular research.
Why you want to do this study.
There is no assumption in the purpose.
Collecting & Analyzing data
Purpose leads logically to the findings.
Answers to: Why do you want to do this research?
What do expect to learn?
What are the burning questions?
Why are you here at Fuller?
Give an example of a purpose statement from a TA paper
Hopkins, 2010

10. What Research Purpose Is and Is Not
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
What Research Purpose Is and Is Not
IS NOT
Not simply information gathering/reporting
Not simply for self-enlightenment
Comparing two sets of data is not sufficient
Questions that result in yes/no answer IS
“Research has one end: the discovery of truth. Its purpose is to learn what has never been known before; to ask a significant question for which no conclusive answer has previously been found; and, by collecting and interpreting relevant data, to find an answer to that question” (Leedy and Ormrod 2010:xvi).
Hopkins, 2010

11. Sources for Defining Your Project
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Sources for Defining Your Project
Look around you—what are the needs and unanswered questions in your context?
Read the literature
Attend professional conferences
Seek advice of experts
Find something that interests and motivates you—this is what will keep you going
Hopkins, 2010

12. Look at Topic Carefully
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Look at Topic Carefully
State problem as clearly as possible
How feasible is it? Cost? Time?
Say precisely what you mean
Be open minded about the solution
Are you the right person to do this research?
Hopkins, 2010

13. The Goal of Program Design
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
The Goal of Program Design
The GOAL of the Research Project is to arrive at conclusions based on data analysis and make significant recommendations for mission
The goal(s) reflect(s) the expected results/outcomes of doing the research
What comes out at the end when you complete the research? How will you use what you have learned?
Achievement of goals will be reported in Conclusions and enable you to make significant recommendations.
Goals are not included in the research but rather are the result/outcome of the research.
Hopkins, 2010

14. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Purpose Statement
PURPOSE reflects the content and rationale of your research
The TOPIC – content
The RATIONALE -- “for the purpose of” What this Project is about and Why you want to do it
Purpose relates to the data necessary to produce findings appropriate to the CRI
Write out a one-sentence purpose statement that gives rationale for your project and anticipates the findings you need to do it.
Sample language on next page
Have TAs bring and display their Purpose & Goal Statements
Hopkins, 2010

15. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Goal Statement
GOAL reflects the anticipated outcomes of having done the research.
You know you are finished when you have met your goal(s)
Your goals are referred to in the conclusion of the dissertation—you have met your goals so you are done
Goals apply the findings to realizing the outcomes in order to make a significant missiological impact
Write out a one-sentence statement that is simple and reflects your desired outcomes
Hopkins, 2010

16. Example #1: Focus Statement
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Example #1: Focus Statement
To study the ministry journeys of women leaders in the Vineyard movement, in order to let their voices be heard and become part of the Vineyard conversation, so that those voices can shape and inform the praxis and mission of the Vineyard.
Topic?
Rationale?
What kinds of data?
What findings does this anticipate?
Hopkins, 2010

17. Example #1: Application
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Example #1: Application
To see the stories of women in leadership become part of the shared Vineyard Story and as such to shape the structure and praxis of mission in the Vineyard movement.
How know when finished?
What kind of findings needed in order to establish outcomes and make recommendations?
Hopkins, 2010

18. Example #2: Focus Statement
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Example #2: Focus Statement
I want to study the member care being offered to Latin American cross-cultural workers serving within an Islamic setting in order to provide Latin American sending agencies and churches accurate information gleaned directly from their sent ones that takes into account both their sending culture and the realities of their adopted culture.
Topic?
Rationale?
What kinds of data?
What findings does this anticipate?
Hopkins, 2010

19. Example #2: Application Intent
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Example #2: Application Intent
By interviewing both the senders and the sent ones, I wish to facilitate a bridge of dialog so that Latin American leaders can further develop the member care of their cross-cultural workers in culturally appropriate ways.
How know when finished?
What kind of findings needed in order to establish outcomes and make recommendations?
Hopkins, 2010

20. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Example #3: Purpose
The purpose of this study is to discover how mixed-gendered ministry teams navigate adaptive challenges based on team members’ individual prior leadership and group experience.
Topic?
Rationale?
What kinds of data?
What findings does this anticipate?
Hopkins, 2010

21. Example #3: Goal or Application?
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Example #3: Goal or Application?
The goal for this study is that CAI teams will become more adept in leading adaptive change and effectively navigating adaptive challenges in order to model the Body of Christ and contribute to the multiplication of healthy teams.
How know when finished?
What kind of findings needed in order to establish outcomes and make recommendations?
Hopkins, 2010

22. Definition: Critical Thinking
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Definition: Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
Hopkins, 2010

23. Critical Thinking Is Based on…
MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Critical Thinking Is Based on…
universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. 
Hopkins, 2010

24. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions, implication and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of reference.
Hopkins, 2010

25. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Critical thinking
Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.”
Hopkins, 2010

26. MB769 Introduction to Research Design
Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Model
Program Design - Purpose & Goal
Intellectual Standards
Must be applied to
Accuracy
Clarity
Relevance
Logical
Sufficiency
Precision
Depth
Significance
Fairness
Breadth
Elements of Reasoning
Purposes
Questions
Points of View
Information
Inferences
Concepts
Implications
Assumptions
Intellectual Traits
Perseverance
Empathy
Integrity
Confidence in
reasoning
Humility
Autonomy
Fair-
mindedness
Courage
To develop
Hopkins, 2010

27. Your Research Project On a blank piece of paper:
Write your Central Research Issue in large letters and keep it front and center throughout the research process.

28. Research Methods—Key Issues
Once you know WHAT you want to research
Data collection
Data analysis
Reliability and validity
WHAT EXAMPLES ARE YOU AWARE OF?

29. Choice of Methods Look at Purpose, Goal, CRI, RQs
What information do you need to know from others?
How and where can you get it?
What method(s) will help you answer these questions?

30. Two Major Approaches to Research
Quantitative
Qualitative
What are the differences?

31. Qualitative/Quantitative Differences
Quasi-Experimental Qualitative
Deductive-find data to match theory
Inductive-find theory to match data
Verification-a given hypothesis applies to several data sets, so can generalize beyond a single study
Concrete generalizations-only good for the group under study
Objective-try and keep personal feelings out of research
Subjective- investigator as part of the research frame

32. “Hard” data
“Soft” data
Samples: results generalized from subjects sampled to some wider population
Conventions:
comparability (use standard terms, analytic frames, serve as basis for comparison with other like and unlike groups)
• translatability (comparisons conducted across groups and disciplines)

33. Efficient: if experiment or survey is set up right, can be run fairly quickly
Labor intensive: takes one researcher a substantial length of time to uncover patterns and meanings
Try to get rid of subjectivity (study subjects)
Incorporate subjectivity (study participants)
Manipulation of phenomena (control for variables)
Accommodate phenomena (view what comes naturally)

34. • of data (time, space, persons)
Serial experiments
Triangulation
• of data (time, space, persons)
• investigator (more than one person examines same situation
• theory (use competing theories to test)
• methods (e.g. fieldnotes, surveys, etc.)
Serial Experiments
triangulation (survey term indicating intersection of two landmarks)
• of data (time, space, persons)
• investigator (more than one person examines same situation
• theory (use competing theories to test)
• methods (e.g. fieldnotes, surveys, etc.)
Shorter dissertations (but definitely not less work!)
Longer dissertations
Source: Goetz & Le Compte, Lingenfelter, J.

35. Shorter dissertations because of use of statistical packages to process and display data
Longer dissertations, because of the need to include descriptive material
Reliability in focus
Validity in focus

36. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Able to handle the complexities of culture, which is often messy and disorganized
2. Blend of art and science: creativity within boundaries is welcomed
3. Resists “cookbook” solutions to presentation and writing up of data

37. VALIDITY ISSUES
1. David Silverman says that qualitative research suffers from the problem of anecdotalism (often a researcher’s findings depend on a few well-chosen examples)
2. Ways to counter this:
A. Triangulation
B. Respondent validation (giving our respondents a first draft and asking if we have represented them accurately)

38. 3. We cannot say the claims of a research study are valid when:
a. Only a few exemplary instances are reported
b. The criteria or grounds for including certain instances and not others are not provided

39. Bernard on Validity
Validity refers to the accuracy and trustworthiness of instruments, data, and findings in research. Bernard says that NOTHING is more important than validity
Ultimately the validity of a concept depends on two things: the utility of the device that measures it and the collective judgment of the scientific community that a construct and its measurement are valid
Cause and Effect: you can be reasonably confident that one variable causes another if four conditions are met:
3a. The two variables are associated with each other
3b. The association must not be spurious

40. In other words, you are asking, “What’s Going On Here?” (THEORY)
3c. The presumed causal variable must always precede the other in time
3d. A mechanism must be available that explains how an independent variable causes a dependent variable. There must be a theory somewhere!
In other words, you are asking, “What’s Going On Here?” (THEORY)

41. You must recognize that you and other Christians doing research may not see things the same way (e.g. dispute between Phil Parshall and Greg Livingstone about contextualization in reaching Muslims- sensitivity or syncretism?)

42. STRATEGIES FOR THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT DATA ANALYSIS
1. Refutability principle: try to disprove what you think you see 2. Constant comparative method: always attempt to find another case through which to test out a provisional hypothesis 3. Comprehensive data treatment: make sure your generalizations are able to apply to every single piece of the data you have 4. Deviant case analysis: Absolutely essential to account for all deviant cases

43. Inductive Reasoning Begin with the data Qualitative research
Asking what does this means?
Build or adopt and modify a theory or model
Specific to a context
Qualitative research
A reasoning process of drawing conclusions from facts or circumstances. Reaching generalizable conclusions—often qualitative, based on meaning
Begin with the data
Asking what does this mean?
Build or adopt and modify a theory or model
Specific to a context
Qualitative research
A reasoning process of drawing conclusions from facts or circumstances. Reaching generalizable conclusions—often qualitative, based on meaning.

44. Inductive Reasoning (cont.)
Recognizes . . .
The meaning of data in context = Validity (what’s going on here?)
Focus is on understanding the perspective in a particular context
Methods: Ethnography (participant observation), interviews, focus groups, case studies
--Context dependent, contemporary, everyday settings
Data can be trusted
Suggests Case studies = examples of the issue/problem being researched
3) Qualitative Research Methods – getting at the EMIC

45. Scientific Research Cycle (Jim Nelson)
Data
—to be analyzed
How do you get it?
Hypothesis
—suggested by
the theory and data
Theory/model
—built on the data
DATA –How will you handle?
Use as a way do develop theory, or understand a model? (INDUCTIVE)
OR as a way to Test a Hypothesis? (DEDUCTIVE)
WHICH WAY SHOULD THE ARROWS GO FOR YOUR RESEARCH?
i.e. where to jump in?
WHAT WILL YOU DO WITH THE DATA? Build new theory/models OR Test Hypotheses???
Where do you jump into the cycle?
The answer depends on the nature of your research

46. Deductive Reasoning State an hypothesis and test it
Does this work
Can I predict or anticipate certain things as a result of what I know
Know x and y, can I predict z
Hypothesis represents a viewpoint
you are controlling the data
A process of logical reasoning from stated propositions. Hypothesis testing—often quantitative, based on numbers

47. Deductive Reasoning (cont.)
Requires
Quantification and measurement = Reliability (consistency)
Focus is on prediction and control
Methods: survey, random sampling, means to verify hypothesis = quantification
--Researcher dependent
Is data truthful?
3) Viggo Sogaard’s course, etc.

48. Missiological Research
Missiological research tends to be phenomenological in nature—Focus is on “what’s going on.”
Research is generally concerned with:
Understanding people/issues in context
Developing theory/models from data
Applying understanding from one context to impact another (generalizability/universals)

49. Missiological Research (Cont.)
Therefore, missiological methods tend toward inductive/qualitative approaches, but don’t ignore deduction
Collect data that provide understanding of a context which contributes to new theory/models and leads to testable hypotheses—theory derives from data!
Dr. King’s apology to Dr. Kraft – I’m not very ‘theoretical’ - but I have lots of data. I know what is going on.
INDUCTIVE DATA: (Inductive/Qualitative)—theory emerges from data (Grounded Theory/Case Studies)
Focus on Openness, Selective sampling, Subjective, Context issues (human diversity)
HARD TO QUANTIFY!
2) DEDUCTIVE DATA: (Deductive/Quantitative)—data supports theory (Surveys, Church Growth study)
Focus on Control, Random sampling, Objective, Universal issues (Human commonality)

50. 3 Key Questions for Doctoral Work
Does the researcher know what they want to study? What the real question is?
Does the researcher know how to research their question/s to find the answer?
Does the researcher know when to stop?
Dr. Charles Van Engen

51. The Research Circle WHAT? NOW WHAT? SO WHAT? Data Analysis!
What’s the question or issue?
WHAT?
Data Collection!
Research
Issue
NOW WHAT?
Research Affects
Our Ministries!
SO WHAT?
Data Analysis!

52. NOTES