1. Chapter 4: Money and Inflation
Continued
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

2. One benefit of inflation
Nominal wages are rarely reduced, even when the equilibrium real wage falls. This hinders labor market clearing.
Sometimes the equilibrium real wage for an industry may change
Now, the firm needs to take the nominal wage as given and hire workers to a point where MPL= W/P
Students will better appreciate this point when they learn chapter 6 (the natural rate of unemployment). In this chapter, we will see how the failure of wages to adjust contributes to a long-term unemployment problem.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

3. CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation
Factor Price L
F-demand 2
F-demand 1
(W/P)2
(W/P)1
Factor Supply
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

4. When this happens, the logical thing to do is to cut the real wage from (W /P) 1 to (W /P) 2
If prices are fixed, this implies a reduction in nominal wages
However, this is hardly done in practice because workers feel offended.
Inflation allows the real wages to reach equilibrium levels without nominal wage cuts.
Therefore, moderate inflation improves the functioning of labor markets.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

5. Hyperinflation def: π = 50% per month
All the costs of moderate inflation described above become HUGE under hyperinflation.
Money ceases to function as a store of value, and may not serve its other functions (unit of account, medium of exchange).
People may conduct transactions with barter or a stable foreign currency.
Page 104 has an excellent example of life during a hyperinflation, which involves beer, a commodity with which your students may be somewhat familiar. See also the excellent case study on pp
Note: On p.103, the text states “Hyperinflation is often defined as inflation that exceeds 50 percent per month.” I’ve included this definition at the top of this slide, to be consistent with the textbook. However, some professors are a bit uncomfortable assigning a specific number (such as 50% per month) to the definition of hyperinflation, because, for example, most would agree that 49% per month inflation is high enough to be considered hyperinflation. The definition I like to use in my own teaching is this:
hyperinflation: a really, really, really high rate of inflation
Feel free to edit the definition of “hyperinflation” on this slide if you wish.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

6. Costs of Hyperinflation -1
Shoeleather costs: Business executives spend much more time to manage the firms’ cash that they cannot work on production and investment.
Menu costs: Prices change too fast.
Ex: German hyperinflation (1920s) waiter announces new prices every ½ hour.
Changing relative prices: Almost impossible to do a price search when prices are changing very rapidly.
Ex: German bar: order two pitchers of beer because the price of the 2nd one increase before you finish 1st pitcher.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

7. Costs of Hyperinflation -2
Tax systems: The real value of our tax payment ↓ by the time government receives it.
Overall inconvenience: Imagine carrying a bag of money to the grocery store.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

8. What causes hyperinflation?
Hyperinflation is caused by excessive money supply growth:
When the central bank prints money, the price level rises.
If it prints money rapidly enough, the result is hyperinflation.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

9. Aside: “Money printing”
“Money printing” is a technical term that refers to an increase in money supply
Central banks usually increase the money supply through “open market operations”
An “open market purchase” is the central banks purchase of bonds from public
In exchange for bonds, CB gives money to public and the money supply increases
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

10. Literally printing money through the printing press is also done to replace old currency with new ones.
Because the old currency is replaced with new currency, money supply does not change due to “money printing” via the printing press.
Printing money via printing press is under the autority of the Government (Treasury department)
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

11. A few examples of hyperinflation
money growth (%)
inflation (%)
Israel,
295
275
Poland,
344
400
Brazil,
1350
1323
Argentina,
1264
1912
Peru,
2974
3849
Nicaragua,
4991
5261
Bolivia,
4208
6515
Examples of hyperinflation from the textbook:
1. interwar Germany (data and discussion)
2. Bolivia in 1985 (Case Study)
This table provides data on Bolivia’s hyperinflation, and some additional examples.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

12. Why governments create hyperinflation
Hyperinflations are caused by fiscal imbalances.
G – T: Budget Deficit: Three ways to finance:
1) ↑ T
2) Issue bonds
3) Print money (via printing press)
When a government cannot raise taxes or sell bonds, it must finance spending increases by printing money.
Before revealing the contents of this slide, you might consider asking students the following question:
“Solving the problem of hyperinflation is easy. Why, then, do governments allow hyperinflation to occur?”
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

13. In the real world, this requires drastic and painful fiscal restraint.
If the government cannot get the funds via T or bonds, then it may rely on printing money which is inflationary. This starts a circular act:
Printing money → ↑ π → ↓ Real tax revenue → Deficit widens →print more money
In theory, the solution to hyperinflation is simple: stop printing money.
In the real world, this requires drastic and painful fiscal restraint.
Hyperinflations usually end with a fiscal reform. ↑ T, ↓ G
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

14. The Classical Dichotomy
Real variables: Measured in physical units – quantities and relative prices, for example:
quantity of output produced
real wage: output earned per hour of work
real interest rate: output earned in the future by lending one unit of output today
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

15. Nominal variables: Measured in money units, e.g.,
nominal wage: Dollars per hour of work.
nominal interest rate: Dollars earned in future by lending one dollar today.
the price level: The amount of dollars needed to buy a representative basket of goods.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

16. In this chapter, we have seen nominal variables: Money and inflation.
In chapter 3, we have seen real variables: Real GDP, W/P: all in physical units.
In this chapter, we have seen nominal variables: Money and inflation.
In chapter 3, we have produced and allocated income without any money.
This separation between the real and the nominal side of the economy is called: Classical Dichotomy.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

17. Neutrality of Money Recall the quantity theory:
∆M has no impact on ∆Y. The irrelevance of money to real variables is called money neutrality.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

18. Conclusions
Classical dichotomy: the theoretical separation of real and nominal variables in the classical model, which implies nominal variables do not affect real variables.
Neutrality of money: Changes in the money supply do not affect real variables.
In the real world, money is approximately neutral in the long run.
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

19. End of chapter problem 10
Suppose consumption depends on the level of real money balances.
Show that if real money balances depend on the nominal interest rate, an increase in the rate of M growth affects C, I, and r.
Does i adjust one for one to expected inflation?
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation

20. C=C(M/P) and (M/P)d =L(i)
M(up)P (up)Inflation (up)i (up)(M/P)d (down)C (down)S=Y-C-G (up)r (down)
i=r + π e
(down) (up)
CHAPTER 4 Money and Inflation