1. Cross-over, Degendering, or…?
A Multi-Dimensional Approach to Life-Span Gender Development
Rebecca Delaney, M.S. 1, Philip Lemaster, Ph.D1,2, JoNell Strough, Ph.D 1
1Life-Span Developmental Psychology, West Virginia University; 2Concordia College
Abstract
Research Questions
Results
2 X 3 MANOVA: Main Effects of Gender and Age Group
Compared to studies on gender development in childhood, little research has addressed how gender may continue to develop across adulthood. Gender cross-over theory suggests that men and women are more likely to endorse characteristics of the opposite gender in middle and older adulthood (Gutmann, 1975). Degendering theory (Silver, 2003) posits that gender roles become a less salient part of an individual’s identity in older age.
We assessed whether multiple dimensions of gender (stereotypical masculine/feminine traits, gender identification, & gender typicality) differed systematically between men and women and across age.
583 Participants were recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (53.6% women; years; Mage = 47.4)
There was little support for cross-over or degendering theories of life-span gender development. Stereotypical gender differences were found for stereotypical masculine and feminine traits across all age groups. Older adults reported greater gender typicality than younger and middle-aged adults, which is opposite of what degendering theory would predict.
Research Question
Do multiple psychological aspects of gender (stereotypically masculine and feminine traits, gender identification, & gender typicality) differ systematically by gender across age in a cross-sectional sample of adults?
Gender
Age Group
Men
Women YA MA OA
(n= 271)
(n=313)
F(1, 578)
ηp2
(n= 200)
(n= 205)
(n= 179)
F(2, 578)
Masculine traits
4.67
(.05)
4.30
28.9**
0.05
4.49
(.06)
4.42
4.56
1.34
0.01
Feminine traits
4.28
4.84
(.04)
78.08**
0.12
4.60
4.52
4.57
0.52
0.00
Gender identification
3.66
(.03)
3.57
3.61
3.59
3.64
3.63
0.53
Gender typicality
2.92
2.81
5.38*
2.79
2.78
3.02
8.93**
0.03
Participants and Procedure
U.S. adults recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk
584 participants completed an online survey and were paid $1.50
(53.6% women; years; Mage = 47.4)
89.6% Caucasian; 30.5% received Bachelor’s degree
Note. YA = younger adults, MA = middle-aged adults, OA = older adults.
Means are presented with standard errors in parentheses. * p <.05, ** p<.001
Age range (yrs)
% sample
Mage (SD)
Young adults
25-39
34.2
31.4 (4.14)
Middle-aged adults
40-59
35.1
48.14 (5.58)
Older adults
60+
30.7
64.37 (3.70)
Background
Measures
Gender as multi-dimensional construct
Viewed as unidimensional construct in the past (Constantinople, 1973)
Masculinity Femininity
(assertive, independent) (compassionate, understanding)
Stereotypical masculine and feminine traits can be endorsed by both genders (Bem, 1974; Spence & Helmreich, 1978)
Contemporary literature highlights multidimensionality (Ashmore, ; Huston, 1983; Twenge, 1999)
E.g., gender attitudes, activities and interests, personality traits
Life-span gender development theories
Gender cross-over theory (Gutmann, 1975)
Changes in social roles that accompany aging lead to shifts in gender-stereotypical personality traits.
Middle-aged and older men more likely than younger men to endorse more stereotypical feminine traits.
Middle-aged and older women more likely to endorse stereotypical masculine traits than younger women (e.g., Cooper & Gutmann, 1987).
“Degendering” (e.g. Silver, 2003)
Gender roles become a less central aspect of the self with age. Little research has investigated this theory.
Bem Sex Role Inventory
(Bem, 1974)
1 (never like me) to 7 (always like me)
Masculine traits (α= .89; 20 items)
“Strong personality,” “Analytical,” “Self reliant”
Feminine traits (α= .87; 20 items)
“Affectionate,” Understanding,” “Soft spoken”
Gender Identification
(Michaelieu, 1997)
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)
(α= .76; 13 items)
“Being a male/female* is an important part of my identity.”
“In general, other people respect males/females.”
“I think of myself as different than most other males/females.”
Gender Typicality Scale
(adapted from Egan & Perry, 2001)
1 (very untrue for me) to 4 (very true for me)
(α= .88; 6 items)
“I feel like I’m just like all the other men/women* my age.”
“I think I am a good example of being a man/woman.”
“I feel that my personality is similar to most men’s/women’s personalities.”
*Note: Items are gender specific.
Men and women received different versions of the same items.
Discussion
Most aspects of gender appear to be relatively similar across age groups. Stereotypical gender differences in masculine and feminine traits were found. Effect sizes were relatively small, which may indicate more similarities rather than large differences (Hyde, 2005).
Men reported that they felt like a more typical example of their gender group than women. This suggests that men are more likely than women to exemplify or engage in activities that they perceive as more typical for their gender group.
No indication of an age-related cross-over in gender roles—gender differences in endorsement of stereotypical personality traits were consistent for younger, middle- aged, and older adults.
Increased perceived gender typicality with age could reflect cumulative life experience with gendered social roles.
Personality has been suggested to fluctuate with age-graded social role experiences (Roberts, Wood, & Smith, 2005). Greater perceived gender typicality in later life could reflect this process.
For further information, please contact:
Rebecca Delaney or
JoNell Strough )