1. VIRTUAL & PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

2. VIRTUAL RELATIONSHIPS
How many ways can you think of that we can electronically communicate with people?
Why might it be beneficial to communicate electronically (online)?
Why do you think these kind of relationships are termed as ‘understudied’?

3. VIRTUAL RELATIONSHIPS
How many ways can you think of that we can electronically communicate with people?
Why might it be beneficial to communicate electronically (online)?
- can be good for those with low self-esteem, poor social skills, lack of confidence, people who live in remote areas….
Why do you think these kind of relationships are termed as ‘understudied’?
- a high proportion of these kind of relationships take place behind closed- doors (on the internet or using apps. Also there is still some degree of social stigma surrounding these kind of relationships so not everyone wants to admit to ‘online’ dating.

4. Paralanguage
When we speak face to face with someone, it is not just our words which communicate our meaning. Non-verbal paralanguage may be more important than the words themselves for example body posture, eye gaze may express liking even if the verbal communication does not. On the phone, there are still paralanguage signals such as pauses and tone of voice which can communicate intention. However, all non-verbal communication is lost on the internet; meaning is dependent only upon words and nothing else.
This has implications in terms of honesty. We cannot see if the people we are speaking to are who they say they are. It can have benefits however via the ‘absence of gates’ (these are physical things such as facial disfigurement or even a stutter which might stop FtF relationships forming).

5. REDUCED CUES THEORY
Reduced cues theory claims that internet relationships filter out important aspects of communication that participants in face to face communication have access to (e.g., intensity, volume and body language), leaving a conversation in a ‘social vacuum’. The reduced cues available to each partner in the communication may lead to deindividuation, which in turn undermines social and normative influences, leading to inhibited behaviour. Because internet relationships lack the norms and standards that regulate face to face behaviour, users can become more aggressive and impulsive when communicating with others.  

6. Deindividuation
The loss of one’s self-identity due to becoming anonymous.

7. THE HYPERPERSONAL MODEL
In this model of interpersonal communication it is suggested that computer-mediated communication (CMC) can become ‘hyperpersonal’ because it "exceeds [face-to-face] interaction", thus allowing greater self-disclosure. Compared to ordinary FtF situations, a hyperpersonal message sender has a greater ability to manipulate and edit self-presentation, enabling a selective and idealised version of one's self to others.
Reciprocated

8. PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Learning objectives:
To describe parasocial relationships and the attraction shown, by some, to celebrities.
Outline and evaluate the Absorption-addiction model and Attachment theory of parasocial relationships

9. Starter Task:
Who do you consider to be a ‘celebrity’? List at least 10 people.
From your list, who is your favourite celebrity? Why?
From your list, who is your least favourite celebrity? Why?
Do your celebrities share any characteristics?
What have they done to be famous?

10. A celebrity is a widely-recognised person who commands a high degree of public and media attention.
Some people make a distinction between a celebrity (well known just for being well known) and being ‘famous’ (the result of a skill or talent).
3/04/18/exploring-the-shift-in-celebrity- culture/
What is a celebrity?

11. National Children’s Day Poll
Who were the most ‘famous’ people in the world?
Simon Cowell came in at no.1

12. and then…….
Then God…….

13. and then…….
Then the Queen…

14. National Children’s Day Poll
Children rated being a celebrity as the best career in the world!

15. Parasocial Relationships
Relationships with celebrities are usually entirely one-sided.
The target individual is unaware of the existence of the person who created the relationship.
These relationships may be appealing because they make few demands, and the individual does not run the risk of criticism or rejection as might be the case in a real relationship.

16. Positive /active view of PSR
Jenkins 1992
PSR are beneficial to individuals who struggle to form ‘actual’ social relationships or who have had negative experiences in the past as they make few demands, and the individual does not run the risk of criticism or rejection as might be the case in a real relationship.
Enable ‘fans’ to enhance their lives by creating social networks with other fans.
Allow individuals to develop an appreciation of other people’s talents.
PSR’s can lead to a sense of personal identity and fulfilment.

17. Who are more likely to form Parasocial Relationships?
Schiappa (2007) conducted meta-analysis and found, PSR are more likely if…
The individual is aged between 11-17
The individual is low in religiosity.
The individual has low levels of educational attainment (but isn’t necessarily low in intelligence)
The individual perceives the celebrity as attractive or similar to themselves.
If the individual perceives the celebrity as ‘real’.
There was no link found to the perceived loneliness of an individual and the likelihood to form PSRs.

18. McCutcheon’s Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
Devised Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS)
Measures attitudes on celebrities.
Ranked PSRs into three levels.
A person can move up the levels.
Complete the questionnaire(p.14) and count up your scores for each dimension. Work out if you score low, medium or high for each measure.

22. ABSORPTION-ADDICTION MODEL
Explains attraction to celebrities by suggesting that certain individuals are prone to develop high level ‘Parasocial’ relationships.
ABSORPTION
Individuals with a weaker sense of personal identity or poor adjustment may “absorb” themselves in a celebrity’s life to gain a stronger sense of identity. They are making up for a lack in their own life by finding out about and maybe even entering into the life of their chosen ‘celebrity target’.
ADDICTION
PSR are addictive so increasing sense of involvement with the celebrity is needed. As with any addiction compulsive behaviour may occur.
Salience (pre-occupations, constantly thinking about the person and cognitive distortions) is common
Mood modification (low mood when not engaged in activity concerning ‘target’ or high mood when engaged in activity relating to target).
These relationships may be appealing because they make few demands, and the individual does not run the risk of criticism or rejection as might be the case in a real relationship.

23. ATTACHMENT THEORY OF STALKING
Name the three attachment types, describe typical infant behaviour for each and state the % of each in Ainsworth’s 1978 study.

25. ATTACHMENT THEORY OF PSR’s
We have a tendency to form parasocial relationships in adolescence and adulthood due to attachment difficulties in early childhood.
Bowlby’s attachment theory = early difficulties lead to emotional problems later on in life
Ainsworth – insecure-resistant and insecure avoidant leads to unhealthy emotional development.

26. ATTACHMENT THEORY OF PSR’s
Insecure resistant types are most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults – they have unfulfilled needs met, PSR’s don’t have a threat of rejection, break- ups or disspointment that real life relationships may have.
Insecure avoidant – prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of relationships altogether, social or parasocial!

27. ATTACHMENT THEORY OF STALKING
Bowlby proposed an internal working model as part of his continuity hypothesis. This was supported by Hazan and Shaver’s (1987) ‘love quiz’.
Bartholomew (1990) developed these ideas further and suggested 4 types of adult attachment;
- SECURE
- PRE-OCCUPIED
- DISMISSING Kienlen (1998) linked these with stalking
- FEARFUL

28. Maltby (2001)
Assessed over 300 UK students’ CAS score and correlated it with a health questionnaire to see if it linked with signs of possible psychological illness such as depression, anxiety and social dysfunction. Low numbers of Pps on level 1 had some degree of social dysfunction in real life. Pps on level 2 and level 3 correlated positively and significantly with anxiety and depression.
Correlational analysis cannot support a causal relationship
Self report methods such as questionnaires are prone to issues such as social desirability bias this may be especially likely here as individuals may not answer honestly due to the stigma of being a problem or even ‘pathological fan.

29. Absorption-addiction Model
This theory predicts a negative correlation between mental health and the strength of PSR’s.

30. Additional Research (if you want it)
Stokes’ et al (2007) found that stalking is more common in people with autistic spectrum disorder. People with this disorder have difficulty in forming social relationships with others, and so may be more likely to form the kind of parasocial relationship with a celebrity that could lead to stalking.
Mullen et al (1999) studied 145 stalkers and found delusional personality disorders were common (30%). 63% of the stalkers made threats, and 36% were assaultive. Committing assault was also predicted by previous convictions, substance-related disorders, and previous threats.

31. KIENLEN (1998) – STALKING ‘TYPES’
PREOCCUPIED STALKER
Poor self image; constantly seeking approval from others’ Stalking results from real or imagined rejection and is an attempt to restore a positive sense of self
FEARFUL
STALKER
Poor self image, but sees others as unsupportive and unreliable. Stalking is a result wanting someone to boost self image but rejecting them because of a lack of trust. Stalking is a way of boosting self image.
DISMISSING
Is distant and aloof from others in order to maintain an inflated self image. When relationships fail this person may stalk out of revenge

32. SUPPORT FOR ATTACHMENT THEORY OF STALKING
McCutchon (2006)
Tested 3 hypothesis
Adults with insecure attachment are more likely to become attached to celebrities than those with a secure adult attachment type.
Insecure adults are more likely to agree with/condone stalking and obsessive behaviour towards celebrities.
There is a correlation between stalking and pathological tendencies towards attachment to celebrities.
Sample: 299 students (age 16-42)
Procedure:
- Used celebrity attitude scale and a stalking scale.
- Measured adult attachment using a relationship questionnaire
- Measured childhood attachment type through the use of a parental bonding scale based on their recall of the relationship with their parents before the age of 16.

33. McCutchon (2006): Findings
There was no relationship between insecure attachment and the tendency to form PSR with celebrities.
Those with insecure attachment types were more likely to think that stalking was acceptable and there was a relationship between pathological attachment and the tendency to stalking. Therefore insecure attachment is a predisposing rather than a causal factor.

34. MCCUTCHON (2006): EVALUATION
Ethics
Correlational study
Use of retrospective data
Use of questionnaires

35. ADDITIONAL SUPPORT FOR ATTACHMENT THEORY OF STALKING
Kienlen et al (1997) – studied records (case studies) of 25 stalkers & found that 63% of stalkers had experienced loss of or separation from their primary caregiver during early childhood. Over 50%reported childhood emotional, physical or sexual abuse by their primary caregiver. 80% reported that they had experienced ‘loss or breakdown’ of a ‘significant relationship’ within the 6 months prior to their stalking ‘episode’.
Lewis et al (2001) found that stalkers have traits typical of insecure attachment such as ambivalent attitudes to those they have relationships with and emotional instability.
McCutcheon et al (2006) 266 university students, measured correlations between insecure attachment style and attachment to celebrities and tendency to condone celebrity stalking. Found that insecure attachment types more likely to condone celebrity stalking and are more likely to form parasocial relationships.

36. Evaluation of Absorption-Addiction Model
Maltby’s research – finds strong correlations between dimension 2 and 3 on CAS and dysfunctional, atypical and anti-social behaviour (as the AAM would predict).
 McCutcheon’s (2006) research challenges Attachment theories prediction that insecure attachment leads to the formation of PSR.
Methodological issues. Most research studies seeking to support the AAM rely on self report and then correlate the findings.
Attachment theory is highly deterministic. Bowlby’s idea of the IWM and the continuity hypothesis suggest that the likelihood and severity of PSR are determined within the critical period. There is no choice in the matter. We are passive and no events throughout our childhood, early adulthood will alter that!
The AAM has been criticised for being descriptive rather than explanatory, that means that whilst it is capable of describing the characteristics of people absorbed in and addicted to celebrity it cannot explain why this happens (unlike attachment theory).

37. Evaluation of Attachment theory of PSR
 McCutcheon (2006) supports (to an extent)
Highly deterministic. The chance of you developing a PSR is the direct result of how you are and the relationships you have with your caregivers during the critical period.