1. Research & Writing in CJ
Chapter 6:
Quantitative Research

2. Quantitative Research
“the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations represent”
(hopefully) a more objective analysis based upon the numerical findings produced from observations

3. Quantitative Research
“quantitative research refers to counting and measuring items associated with the phenomena in question whereas qualitative research focuses on ‘the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things” (chapter 5)

4. Quantitative Research
Many issues not suitable for numerical assignment
May be inaccurate and misleading
Examples?

5. Empirical Observation
Empiricism is use of sensations and experiences (observations) to arrive at conclusions about the world we live in
Scientific method with its focus on causation rather than casual observation is what makes empiricism important

6. Causality
In applying empirical observation to CJ research, we focus upon causal relationships
What behaviors or events leads to other behaviors or events?

7. Idiographic and Nomothetic Causes
Examine numerous explanations for why an event occurred  idiographic explanation
may be qualitative or quantitative
Focus upon relatively few observations in order to provide a partial explanation for an event  nomothetic explanation
Based upon probabilities

8. Criteria for Causality
Independent variable must occur before dependent variable
Relationship b/w independent and dependent variable must be observed
The apparent relationship is not explained by a third variable

9. Necessary and Sufficient Criteria
Must meet the previous criteria but do not have to demonstrate a perfect correlation
If condition/event must occur in order for another event to take place  necessary cause
When the presence of a condition will ordinarily cause the effect to occur  sufficient cause

10. False Precision
When quantifying data, it is imperative the numerical assignments are valid
Arbitrarily assigning numbers to variables w/o a logical reason – the numbers have no true meaning
False precision

11. Quantitative Measurement
“the assignment of numerical value or categorical labels to phenomena for the expressed purpose of quantifiable identification or analysis”
Four levels of measurement:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

12. Nominal Level Data Simplest level of measurement
Measurement is categorical where each is mutually exclusive
Neither a quantitative nor statistical value assigned except for the expressed need to describe the results or to code it for data analyses

13. Ordinal Level Data
Moves beyond merely categorical by assigning a rank or placement of order to variables
Numbers are assigned for ranking purposes but not meant to explain the responses
A demonstration of where the respondent believes the item to fall
Example: Murder = 9, Robbery = 5, Theft = 1
We cannot explain what the differences truly represent

14. Interval Level Data
Provides far better opportunity for explanation than data collected at the nominal and ordinal levels
There is an expected equality in the distance between choices on a continuum
No set zero or starting point
Usefulness may be limited

15. Ratio Level Data Most quantifiable level
Absolute starting point of zero and difference between each point are equal and can be explained
Ratio level can be collapsed into nominal or ordinal measure

16. Types of Quantitative Research: Survey Research
Used when researchers are interested in experiences, attitudes, perceptions, etc.
Three primary methods
Personal interviews
Mail questionnaire
Telephone survey

17. Personal Interviews Surveys that are administered face-to-face
May be qualitative (chapter 5)
Interviews in which the researcher reads from a previously developed questionnaire to which responses are numerically assigned are qualitative
Also permits probing on open-ended questions and observations about the respondent

18. Mail Questionnaires Surveys that are mailed to respondents
Cheaper and safer to administer
Allows surveying a large number quickly

19. Telephone Surveys Quick and easy
May be more efficient by utilizing random digit dialing to sample
Advantage of inputting data as questions answered
Disadvantage: participation

20. Pros of Survey Research
Probability sample and standardized questionnaire allow for descriptive assertions
Larger samples possible
Flexibility in developing operational definitions based on actual observations
Strength of data

21. Cons of Survey Research
Are questions appropriate for all respondents
Seldom allows for development of the feel for the context in which respondents are thinking or acting
Inflexible
Subject to artificiality

22. Field Research
May be qualitative or quantitative
Example

23. Unobtrusive Research
Does not require researcher to be directly involved with subjects of study
Data either already gathered or available in a format that does not require such interaction

24. Analysis of Existing Data
Efficient way to conduct criminological research
Researcher obtains existing data and reanalyzes it
Reevaluation of data from prior study using a new method of analysis
Could be use of governmental data in a new research analysis

25. Quantified Historical Research
Involves review of prior research, documents, or social artifacts to gain insights about an event or era in history
Majority is qualitative but can be quantitative

26. Quantified Content Analysis
Study of social artifacts to gain insights about an event or phenomenon
Quantitative content analysis emphasizes statistical rather than verbal analysis of various forms of communication

27. Evaluation Research
A quantified comparative research design that assists in the development of new skills or approaches
Aids in solving of problems with direct implications for the “real world”
Important for CJ practitioner-researchers b/c it assess the merits of programs and policies

28. Combination Research
Frequently in criminological research, a combination of strategies are utilized.
A research design is a combination of qualitative and quantitative research in that a serious review of the prior research is expected to have been conducted and its contributions to the development of the quantitative research