1. Chapter 9
Women and the Olympics

2. Women and Sport
Generally, females have had fewer opportunities than males to develop positive selfhood through physical activity.
Gendered differences evident in administration, coaching and management.

3. Women in the Olympic Games
Hargreaves (1994): phases of women’s participation in the modern Olympic Games:
1896–1928: exclusion of women
efforts of some women to resist this dismissal.
1928–1952: consolidation and struggles for women in the Olympics.
1952 – the present: the period of challenge to masculine hegemony.
triggered by the entry of the Soviet bloc into the Games and the resulting influence of their political medal agenda: immaterial to national governments whether medals were won by male or female athletes.

4. Introduction of Women’s Sports: Summer Games
Table 9.1. Women’s participation in the Summer Olympic Games

5. Introduction of Women’s Sports cont’d.: Winter Games
Table 9.2. Women’s participation in the Winter Olympic Games

6. The Twenty-first Century
Sydney 2000 Games had greater access for female competitors.
53 NOCs had teams comprising at least 50% females.
Trend continued for the Athens 2004 Games.

7. The Twenty-first Century (cont’d.): women’s sports
Table 9.3. Introduction of Women’s sports to the Olympic Programme

8. Women in Administration of the Games: IOC members
Table 9.4. Female IOC members (February 2006)

9. Women in Administration of the Olympic Games (cont’d.)
1996: IOC adopted suggestions from the Women and Sport Working Group:
NOCs: 10% of decision-makers must be women by 31 December, 2000; 20% by 2005.
Ifs: 10% of decision-makers must comprise be women by 31 December, 2000; 20% by 2005.
Although modest, these goals have not been achieved.

10. The Media and Women in the Olympic Games
Sports media have constructed narratives and visual messages that emphasise physical differences between men and women.
Achievements of women have largely been ignored by the media.
Female athlete being interviewed at the Olympic Village, Los Angeles, 1984

11. The Media and Women in the Olympic Games (cont’d.)
Table 9.5. Coverage of female events in the Seoul, 1988, and Barcelona, 1992 Games by Australian television networks

12. The Media & Women in the Olympic Games (cont’d.)
Rules used by the media that frame female athletes into their subordinate, culturally prescribed, gender roles (Wensing and Bruce, 2003).
Gender-marking – referring to an event as ‘women’s event’
Compulsory heterosexuality – mother, wife, or girlfriend
Emphasis on appropriate feminity - fragile, beautiful, etc.
Infantisation – referring to athlete as ‘young lady’
Non-sport related reports – focusing on athlete’s personal life
Ambivalence – positive images of athletes are juxtaposed with images that undermine women’s success.

13. The Media and Women in the Olympic Games (cont’d.)
Figure 9.1. Eleanor Holm Jarrett

14. Gender Verification/Sex Testing
Tests lasted from the Mexico City 1968 Games until Sydney 2000 Games (conditionally rescinded).
1966: sex testing was first introduced by the IAAF,
female athletes required to appear nude before a panel of doctors.
Because of the growing resentment, this procedure replaced by a chromosome test.