1. The Comparative Approach
Comparing governments instills understanding and helps explain past and current events and predict future events
Comparisons at multiple levels
Sovereignty, authority, and power
Political institutions
Citizens, society, and the state
Comparing governments and their policies instills a greater understanding of the world and enables us to explain past or current actions and even predict future ones with a greater level of certainty. One can make comparisons at multiple levels by examining a government’s legitimacy through its sources of sovereignty, authority, and power; its political institutions; the social context of politics via the interactions of citizens, society, and the state; the factors which influence political and economic change; and the development and implementation of public policy.
Political and economic change
Public policy

2. Executive UK– PM is head of gov, Queen is head of state
Russia – PM is head of gov, president is head of state
China – premier is head of gov, president is head of state
Mexico – president is head of gov and state
Iran – president is head of gov, Supreme Leader is head of state
Nigeria – president is head of gov and state

4. Types of Executive Systems
Parliamentary
Presidential
Split chief executive
Head of State, monarch, symbolizes the people
Head of Government, Prime Minister (PM), runs the State and directs activities
The influence of the executive rests almost primarily with their influence over the legislature.
Terms of office vary depending on how well the PM holds the legislature
Indirect Election through the legislature
Fusion of Powers and Parliamentary Sovereignty
Vote of no confidence
Promotes action, collective responsibility
Single chief executive who performs ceremonial & political roles
Both Head of State & Head of Government
Terms of office are fixed
Direct Elections
Veto power
Separation of powers and checks and balances
Impeachment to remove
Promotes gridlock

5. Parliamentary System
Presidential System
Legislative Branch Relationship with Chief Executive
Parliament elected by voters. The majority party in Parliament chooses the prime minister.
Congress elected by voters. Legislative and executive functions are separate.
Chief Executive (Government Head)
Prime minister who heads council of ministers, or "Cabinet"
President, elected by voters, nominates cabinet members.
Head of State
Often a constitutional monarch.
President is head of state.
Election Periods
Prime minister can call new elections.
Held at fixed intervals.
Political Parties
Often a multiparty system. Government is formed by a ruling coalition of cooperating parties.
Usually a two-party system with third parties holding marginal power.
Examples
Israel, Great Britain, and her former colonies, such as India, Japan.
The United States, Mexico, Nigeria and Brazil.

7. Executive Election Method
UK– PM indirect through House of Commons, majority party, Head of State inherited
Russia – PM appointed by President & Duma must accept or dissolve, president direct run-off
China – premier and president appointed by Politburo Standing Committee
Mexico – direct fptp, usually a minority winner, non-renewable sexenio
Iran – president direct run-off (Screened by Supreme Leader), Supreme Leader is indirect, appointed by Assembly of Experts (elected)
Nigeria – direct run-off, 25% minority rule in 2/3 of the states

8. Legislative
UK– bicameral; House of Commons with all power, House of Lords with only delay power
Russia – bicameral; Duma dominates, Federation Council has only some power to delay
China – unicameral; National People’s Congress (NPC) true authority with CCP; CCP standing committee
Mexico – bicameral; Chamber of Deputies and Senate
Iran – unicameral; Majles elected;
Nigeria – bicameral; House of Representatives and Senate

10. Legislative Elections
Britain – HoC FPTP; 5 year term, new, Fixed Parliament Term Act 2011, HoL inherited and now appointed
Russia – mix PR & fptp in Duma, Federation Council appointed by governor (who was appointed by President) and the state legislatures
China – no national elections; government approves local candidates, CCP picks
Mexico –Combo of FPTP and PR, parties must run women candidates, term limit just lifted
Iran – FPTP, but Guardian Council vetoes a lot of candidates from the ballot
Nigeria – FPTP; lots of voter fraud

11. are currently 9 women in parliament, of a total of 290 parliamentarians

12. Political Parties UK
Labour (Jeremy Corbyn); Conservative (May); Liberal Democrats (Tim Farron), Scottish National Party (SNP)
Russia
United Russia (Putin); Communist Party (Zyuganov); Liberal Democrats (Zhirinovsky, nationalism); Fair Russia (Mironov)
China
CCP domination, Xi Jinping

13. Political Parties Mexico
PRI (Pena Nieto, centrist, corporatist structure, patron-clientelism); PAN (Calderon,rightist, strong in north); PRD (Obrador, leftist)
Iran
parties form around personality; reflects factionalism of religious conservatives and more secular reformers
Nigeria
parties form around personality and divided by ethnicity, not fully developed, PDP success, APC recent win

17. Recent Election ResultsUK
2015 Conservatives, David Cameron (Resigned after Brexit, New PM Theresa May), no coalition with Liberal Democrats needed like 2010, 37% vote win with fptp election method translated into a 51% seat majority in the House of Commons, exaggerated results of fptp elections
Russia
2012 United Russian Party, Putin 64%, no runoff needed, Medvedev appointed PM
China
CCP, Xi Jinping
Mexico
2012, PRI President Enrique Pena Nieto, 38% vote victory (no runoffs in Mexico), stopped 2 election streak for PAN, transfer of power back to PRI

18. Recent Election Results
Iran
1989 Supreme Leader Khamenei by the Assembly of Religious Experts for life
2013 President- Hassan Rouhani, moderate, 51% vote, no runoff needed
2017 Elections happening, Ahmadinejad trying to run, will he be screened?
Nigeria
2015 President General Muhammadu Buhari (Muslim) of the All Progressive Congress (APC), no runoff needed
First time in Nigeria's history, the opposition defeated the ruling party (PDP) in democratic elections, similar moment to 2000 in Mexico and PAN Vicente Fox victory over PRI, example of democratization
It is the fourth time that General Buhari (72 years old) has sought the presidency. He ruled Nigeria from January 1984 until August 1985, taking charge after a military coup in December No runoff was needed.

22. Political legitimacy: What is it?
Citizens believe the government has the right to rule
Political legitimacy is the popular and voluntary acceptance of authority.
Examples:
Russian President
Popular election.
1993 Constitution gives the president the right to rule, which people view as legitimate
Constitution limits the president’s power, which people view as legitimate.
Iranian Supreme Leader
God/Allah-given right to rule.
Theocratic right to interpret Sharia law (jurist guardianship).
Constitutional authority to rule over other institutions.
Assembly of Religious Experts (if linked to religion, popular election of assembly or constitution).

23. Legitimacy UK– huge due to tradition and gradualism
Russia – to a degree, 1993 Constitution, 2000 transition from Yeltsin to Putin, yet Putin staying in charge raises doubts
China – stable, mandate from heaven, military forces legitimacy, but citizens see it as corrupt
Mexico – legitimate through PRI in the early 20th century; legitimacy from the 1910, Revolution and revolutionary leaders (Zapato, Villa, Cardenas)
Iran – legitimate through theocracy; 2009 election questioned legitimacy
Nigeria – no, corruption, kleptocracy prebendalism

25. Ethnic Cleavages Coincide or crosscut?
Britain – Irish Catholic in Northern Ireland, Belfast and Muslims in major cities
Russia – Chechnya (Muslims) in central Asia
China – Buddhists in Tibet, Uyghurs (Muslims) in the West
Mexico – Mestizo v. Amerindian
Iran – Sunni v. Shiite, Persian v. Azari
Nigeria – Civil War or Biafran War, 1967 – 1970, was a war fought to counter the secession of Biafra (Igbo) from Nigeria.
The three predominant groups were the Igbo, which formed between 60–70% of the population in the southeast;
the Hausa-Fulani, which formed about 65% of the peoples in the northern part of the territory; and
the Yoruba, which formed about 75% of the population in the southwestern part  

26. Protests and RebellionsUK
Irish Catholic (Belfast bombings, Bloody Sunday (British) & Good Friday Agreement)
Radical Islam: 7/7 Double Decker Bus Bombing, 2005
Russia
Chechnya (Muslims) Civil War , suppressed
Series of radical Islamic bombings
Beslan school siege, 385 dead
China
Buddhists in Tibet: Dali Lama- Free Tibet- 140 self-immolations since 2009
Uyghurs (Muslims) bombings
Tiananmen Square student protest, Tank Man, crushed by military
Umbrella Revolution: recent pro-democracy Hong Kong protests over the CCP screening the nomination of legislative council and chief executive candidates

28. Protests and Rebellions
Mexico
Mestizo v. Amerindian: Zapatista Rebellion (Indigenous) in Chiapas, 1994 the day after NAFTA took effect
Iran
White Revolution: 1960s by Shah, secularization, women’s voting rights, triggered Islamic Revolution
1979 Islamic Revolution,
Green Revolution: triggered by questionable Ahmadinejad re-election in 2009, Arab Spring and democracy spread to Iran? No, First major protest since Islamic Revolution
Nigeria –
Civil War or Biafran War, 1967 – 1970, 2 million deaths
MEND (Movement to Emancipate the Niger Delta)
Boko Haram (Western education is sinful)

29. What two factors best predict if democracy will take hold?
Vibrant Civil Society
Free Market Capitalism

30. Types of Regimes: Authoritarian vs. DemocraticUK US
Nazis
Stalinist Soviet Union
Russia *Nigeria
Mexico
China Iran I I I I I
________________________________________
Totalitarian
Authoritarian
-Substantive
Democracy
-Liberal
Consolidated
Democracy
Semi-Authoritarian Regime
Hybrid Regime
Illiberal Democracy
Transitional Democracy
Procedural Democracy
*Nigeria: Failed State? Anarchy? Does not categorize as well

31. Traits of a democracy

32. Democratization- Political Liberalization
UK– gradualism, 1688 Glorious Revolution, Devolution
Russia – Gorbachev Glasnost, Soviet Union collapses 1991, National referendum and Constitution, Yeltsin elected,
China – Failed attempt with Tiananmen Square Student Protest 1989, Fang Shou, limited local village elections
Mexico – 2000 Fox (PAN) wins from PRI
Iran – 1979 Shah to a procedural democracy, very limited democratization
Nigeria – 1999 military rule to civilian rule- Obasanjo elected PDP & adhered to 2 term limit, Muhammadu Buhari 2015, All People’s Congress

35. Economy
UK– mixed to a small degree, mostly market; Thatcher privatization; Blair’s third way; oil plays a minor role
Russia – command to market (shock therapy); weak since it depends on oil prices
China – command to mixed
Mexico – mixed; relies on U.S.; WTO, NAFTA; PEMEX
Iran – mixed; small-level private enterprises, bonyads, oil (rentier state)
Nigeria – mixed; parastatals, patron-client relations; huge oil business (rentier state)

36. Two Economic Models Socialism Capitalism Pendulum Theory (Mexico)
Government run
Command economy
5 year plans (China, USSR, Iran)
Nationalization
UK after WWII- NHS, BBC, Beveridge Report
Para-statals
Mexico & PEMEX, Nigeria
Bonyads (Iran)
Import Substitution (ISI)
Leads to Patron-Client Systems, Prebendalism
TVEs (China- Township and Village Enterprises)
High tariffs
Subsidies
People’s Communes in China, collectivization of Agriculture
Iron Rice Bowl
Old Age Pensions
Lazaro Cardenas Mexico
Rentier States
Revenue Sharing
More typical of Authoritarian Regimes
Individuals (business) own and runs the economy
Free-markets, free trade
Privatization
UK Margret Thatcher
Economic Liberalization
Structural Adjustment Programs
IMF & World Bank
Russia
perestroika, shock therapy
China
4 modernizations, SEZs, Open Door trade policy, Deng Xiaoping Theory, Hong Kong, Agriculture - Household responsibility system
Mexico
NAFTA- PAN & Fox, Maquiladoras
Foreign direct investment
Democratic regimes
Necessary precondition for democracy, China?

37. Economic Liberalization
UK– 1980s Thatcherism, Privatization
Russia – Perestrokia 80s & shock therapy 90s
China – Deng, 4 modernizations, SEZs
Mexico – Structural readjustment 1980s, IMF World Bank, privatize many parastatals like banking
Iran – limited
Nigeria – limited

38. Soviet Union v. Russia Economics
Command Economy, statism
5 year plans
Collectivized agriculture
Shock Therapy
Oligarchs
Insider Privatization
Perestroika

39. Economic Nationalization
UK– after WWII, Beveridge Report, NHS, Labour Party Manifesto Clause 4
Russia – 5 year plans, Bolshevik Revolution
China – Mao 5 year plans
Mexico – PEMEX, Cardenas ISI 30’s nationalizing of banks and land: ejidos, parastatals
Iran – Oil nationalized, ISI, bonyads
Nigeria – Parastatals, Oil, Prebendalism

41. Centralizing or decentralizing?
Devolution
Centralizing
UK- Scottish Referendum
Russia & Putin

42. Code vs. Common Law Common Law Code Law (Civil Law) Religious Law
Based on precedent
Judges modify the system over time with their decisions
Originated in the UK
UK, US, Nigeria in the South and at the federal level, Hong Kong
Sometimes known as Continental European law
The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code.
Only legislative enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally binding.
China, Russia, Mexico, Iran (sharia (Islamic law) and qanum (Majles non-scared statutes)
Sharia Law
The moral code and religious law of Islam
Based on Koran
Secondary status for women
Lots of capital Crimes
Iran, North of Nigeria

43. Religion
UK– Anglican Church (official), Queen head, De jure but not de facto fusion of church and state
Russia – legal; majority is Russian Orthodox, illegal under Soviet regime
China – atheist; persecutes dangerous religious groups (Buddhists, Falun Gong)
Mexico – majority is Roman Catholic
Iran – Shiite Islam; Sharia Law, theocracy, run by clerics, Supreme Leader, Guardian Council, Assembly of Religious Experts, special rules for minorities
Nigeria – north Muslim- Sharia Law, south Christian

44. Demographic Issues UK
Aging, causes strain on NHS and leads to austerity measures in social services, like education
Russia
Decline, exodus after Communism, brain drain, Conception Day, Gender imbalance and differences in life expectancy
China
One Child Policy ( ), aging population issues, 4:2:1 issue, princelings, minorities were exempt, Issues with male/ female ratio, Now a 2 child policy,
Urban v. Rural divide
Mexico
Good, balanced, and urbanization and Northern migration to Maquiladoras
Iran
young (15year olds could vote for awhile): enough jobs to keep the country stable?, getting a little older
Fixed population growth issues with birth control, compare to China
Nigeria
Balanced, urbanization

45. Constitution UK– not written in one spot; governed by tradition
Russia – 1993, ratified with national referendum
China – 1982, mentions CCP; unitary
Mexico – 1917; federal system
Iran – 1979; amended in 1989 to include the Supreme Leader (non-elected) by Assembly of Experts
Nigeria – 1999; similar to U.S.

47. PLURALIST INTEREST GROUPS
Multiple groups may represent a single societal interest.
Group membership is voluntary and limited.
Groups often have a loose or decentralized organizational structure.
There is clear separation between interest groups and the government, little government control of the interest group.
US: NAACP, AARP, NRA, Madison & Federalist #51

48. Advantages
Disadvantages
Competition between groups force them to come up with strong policy ideas
Inefficiency can result from competition, hyper-pluralism
Money’s influence

49. DEMOCRATIC CORPORATIST INTEREST GROUP SYSTEMS
More organized in their representation of interests. They often, regularly work with the government and are stronger than pluralist interest groups.
Membership in the peak association is often compulsory and nearly universal.
Peak associations are centrally organized and direct the actions of their members.
Groups are often systematically involved in making and implementing public policy, UK much of 20th century, TUC (Trade Union Congress) a & CBI (Confederation of Business Industries)

50. State Corporatism State brings and even creates interest groups
When business, labor, and the government work closely in policymaking
This limits the influence of smaller groups
Groups have little autonomy
Limited access, corruption?
Secondary to the state in policy making
Mexico under PRI rule

52. State-Controlled Transmission Belt System
State creates and controls group
No autonomy
Common in authoritarian regimes
Arm of the state
Groups exist to facilitate government control of society
China, Iran, Soviet Union,

53. Neo-Corporatism Interest groups take the lead and dominate the state
Britain- Quangos
Quangos: QUasi-Autonomous Non-Governmental Agencies: Policy advisory boards appointed by the government
Work with government to make public policy, others advise on policy, others deliver public services
Thatcher cut back on, budget cuts, 1000s remain
Mexico? A few political scientists suggest, but not yet

55. Concept Charts

58. Where does the UK and Brexit fit in this model?

61. MDC, LDC, DC?

63. Country Charts

64. Types of Regimes: Authoritarian vs. DemocraticUK US
Nazis
Stalinist Soviet Union
Russia *Nigeria
China Iran
Mexico I I I I I
________________________________________
Totalitarian
Authoritarian
-Substantive
Democracy
-Liberal
Consolidated
Democracy
Semi-Authoritarian Regime
Hybrid Regime
Illiberal Democracy
Transitional Democracy
Procedural Democracy
*Nigeria: Failed State? Anarchy? Does not categorize as well

65. UK

67. Russia

68. Lenin, Stalin, Gorbachev Democratic Centralism
Soviet Union vs. Russia
Glasnost
General Secretary:
Lenin, Stalin, Gorbachev
Russian Constitution
Pres appoints PM
President
Head of State PM
Head of Gov
Politburo (150 people):
Made policy
Democratic Centralism
Duma can
reject PM
Federation Council
Upper House
Appointed by Governors
(who are picked by the
President)
& regional legislatures
Duma
Lower House
Elected by mix PR
& FPTP
Nomenklatura (5%):
Mass Line
High voting rates 99%

74. Authority- power- legitimacy
What’s the difference?
Authority- power- legitimacy

75. Normative v. Empirical

76. coinciding cleavages v crosscutting cleavages
(centripetal
vs.
centrifugal forces)

77. Procedural v. Substantive Democracy

78. Presidential v. Parliamentary System

79. Federal Election Commission (CFE) the old and corrupt body that supervised elections in Mexico vs Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) Created before the 1997 election to provide more honest management of elections in Mexico than its predecessor, CFE vs. INEC Nigeria

80. Nation v. State

81. perestroika v. glasnost

82. patron-client politics v. Prebendalism

83. Separation of Powers v. Fusion of Powers

84. Iran: Sharia v. Qanun Law

85. velayat-e faqih = jurists guardianship
means that Guardian council, Assembly of Religious Experts, and Supreme Leader have final say, screen candidates and veto laws

86. GOOD LUCK!!!!
(Jonathon)