Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life

Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life
Chapter 1 Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life

Overview: Inquiring About Life
An organism’s adaptations to its environment are the result of __________________ For example, the ghost plant is adapted to conserving water; this helps it to survive in the crevices of rock walls ________________ is the process of change that has transformed life on Earth © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

_______________ is the scientific study of life
Biologists ask questions such as How does a single cell develop into an organism? How does the human mind work? How do living things interact in communities? Life defies a simple, one-sentence definition Life is recognized by _______________________ Click to add notes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.3 Some properties of life.
Order Response to the environment Evolutionary adaptation Reproduction Figure 1.3 Some properties of life. Regulation Energy processing Growth and development

Concept 1.1: The themes of this book make connections across different areas of biology
Biology consists of more than memorizing factual details __________________ help to organize biological information © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Theme: New Properties Emerge at Each Level in the Biological Hierarchy
Life can be studied at ________________, from molecules to the entire living planet The study of life can be divided into different ___________________________________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The biosphere Tissues Ecosystems Organs and organ systems Communities
Figure 1.4 The biosphere Tissues Ecosystems Organs and organ systems Communities Figure 1.4 Exploring: Levels of Biological Organization Cells Organelles Organisms Atoms Molecules Populations

Emergent Properties ________________________ result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system Emergent properties characterize nonbiological entities as well For example, a functioning bicycle emerges only when all of the necessary parts connect in the correct way © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.3 Some properties of life.
Order Response to the environment Evolutionary adaptation Reproduction Figure 1.3 Some properties of life. Regulation Energy processing Growth and development

The Power and Limitations of Reductionism
__________________ is the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study For example, studying the molecular structure of DNA helps us to understand the chemical basis of inheritance © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

An understanding of biology balances ______________ with the study of ________ ________________
For example, new understanding comes from studying the interactions of DNA with other molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Systems Biology A _______________ is a combination of components that function together ___________________ constructs models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems The systems approach poses questions such as How does a drug for blood pressure affect other organs? How does increasing CO2 alter the biosphere? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Theme: Organisms Interact with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment
Every organism interacts with its _____________, including ________________and other organisms Both organisms and their environments are affected by the interactions between them For example, a tree takes up water and minerals from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air; the tree releases oxygen to the air and roots help form soil © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cycling of chemical nutrients
Figure 1.5 Sunlight Leaves absorb light energy from the sun. Leaves take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen. CO2 O2 Cycling of chemical nutrients Figure 1.5 Interactions of an African acacia tree with other organisms and the physical environment. Animals eat leaves and fruit from the tree. Leaves fall to the ground and are decomposed by organisms that return minerals to the soil. Water and minerals in the soil are taken up by the tree through its roots.

______________ have modified our environment
For example, half the human-generated CO2 stays in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming Global warming is a major aspect of __________ __________________________ It is important to understand the effects of global climate change on the Earth and its populations © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Theme: Life Requires Energy Transfer and Transformation
A fundamental characteristic of living organisms is their _____________ to carry out life’s activities Work, including_____________, __________, and ________________, requires a source of energy Living organisms _____________ energy from one form to another For example, light energy is converted to ________ energy, then kinetic energy Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as __________ and exiting as ________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Energy flow from sunlight to producers to consumers
Figure 1.6a Sunlight Producers absorb light energy and transform it into chemical energy. Chemical energy Figure 1.6 Energy flow in an ecosystem. Chemical energy in food is transferred from plants to consumers. (a) Energy flow from sunlight to producers to consumers

(b) Using energy to do work
Figure 1.6b Heat When energy is used to do work, some energy is converted to thermal energy, which is lost as heat. An animal’s muscle cells convert chemical energy from food to kinetic energy, the energy of motion. Figure 1.6 Energy flow in an ecosystem. A plant’s cells use chemical energy to do work such as growing new leaves. (b) Using energy to do work

Theme: Structure and Function Are Correlated at All Levels of Biological Organization
_____________________of living organisms are closely related For example, a leaf is thin and flat, maximizing the capture of light by chloroplasts For example, the structure of a bird’s wing is adapted to flight © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Wings (b) Wing bones Figure 1.7
Figure 1.7 Form fits function in a gull’s wing. (b) Wing bones

Theme: The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function
The ________ is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life All cells Are enclosed by a ________________ Use __________ as their genetic information © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

A _______________ has membrane-enclosed organelles, the largest of which is usually the nucleus
By comparison, a _____________ is simpler and usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nucleus (membrane- enclosed)
Figure 1.8a Eukaryotic cell Membrane Cytoplasm Figure 1.8 Contrasting eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in size and complexity. Nucleus (membrane- enclosed) Membrane- enclosed organelles DNA (throughout nucleus) 1 m

Prokaryotic cell DNA (no nucleus) Membrane 1 m Figure 1.8b
Figure 1.8 Contrasting eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in size and complexity. 1 m

Theme: The Continuity of Life Is Based on Heritable Information in the Form of DNA
Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic material in the form of _______(deoxyribonucleic acid) DNA is the substance of ___________ _______are the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring The ability of cells to _________is the basis of all reproduction, growth, and repair of multicellular organisms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.9 25 m Figure 1.9 A lung cell from a newt divides into two smaller cells that will grow and divide again.

DNA Structure and Function
Each __________ has one long DNA molecule with hundreds or thousands of genes Genes encode information for building _________ _____is inherited by offspring from their parents _____ controls the development and maintenance of organisms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fertilized egg with DNA from both parents
Figure 1.10 Sperm cell Nuclei containing DNA Fertilized egg with DNA from both parents Embryo’s cells with copies of inherited DNA Egg cell Figure 1.10 Inherited DNA directs development of an organism. Offspring with traits inherited from both parents

Each DNA molecule is made up of ______ long chains arranged in a _________________
Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical building blocks called _______________ and nicknamed A, G, C, and T © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(b) Single strand of DNA
Figure 1.11 Nucleus A C DNA Nucleotide T A T T Cell A C C G T Figure 1.11 DNA: The genetic material. A G T A (a) DNA double helix (b) Single strand of DNA

Genes control protein production ____________
DNA is transcribed into _______then translated into a __________ _________________ is the process of converting information from gene to cellular product © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences
An organism’s _________ is its entire set of genetic instructions The human genome and those of many other organisms have been sequenced using DNA-sequencing machines ____________ is the study of sets of genes within and between species © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.12 Figure 1.12 Biology as an information science.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The genomics approach depends on “_______________” technology, which yields enormous amounts of data __________________ , which is the use of computational tools to process a large volume of data Interdisciplinary research teams © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Theme: Feedback Mechanisms Regulate Biological Systems
______________ mechanisms allow biological processes to self-regulate ______________ means that as more of a product accumulates, the process that creates it slows and less of the product is produced ________________ means that as more of a product accumulates, the process that creates it speeds up and more of the product is produced © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Negative feedback B D Excess D blocks a step. D D C D
Figure 1.13a A Negative feedback Enzyme 1 B D Enzyme 2 Excess D blocks a step. D D C Figure 1.13 Regulation by feedback mechanisms. Enzyme 3 D (a) Negative feedback

Excess Z stimulates a step. Z Y Z
Figure 1.13b W Enzyme 4 X Positive feedback  Enzyme 5 Excess Z stimulates a step. Z Y Z Figure 1.13 Regulation by feedback mechanisms. Z Enzyme 6 Z (b) Positive feedback

Evolution, the Overarching Theme of Biology
______________ makes sense of everything we know about biology Organisms are modified descendants of ___________ ancestors © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Evolution explains patterns of __________ ____________ in living organisms
Similar traits among organisms are explained by descent from common ancestors Differences among organisms are explained by the accumulation of __________________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Concept 1.2: The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life
“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution”—Theodosius Dobzhansky _____________ unifies biology at different scales of size throughout the history of life on Earth © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Classifying the Diversity of Life
Approximately __________ species have been identified and named to date, and thousands more are identified each year Estimates of the total number of species that actually exist range from ___ million to over ___ million © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Grouping Species: The Basic Idea
_____________ is the branch of biology that names and classifies species into groups of increasing breadth _____________, followed by ___________, are the broadest units of classification © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ursus americanus (American black bear)
Figure 1.14 Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain Ursus americanus (American black bear) Ursus Ursidae Carnivora Mammalia Figure 1.14 Classifying life. Chordata Animalia Eukarya

The Three Domains of Life
Organisms are divided into _________ domains Domain ___________ and domain ___________ compose the prokaryotes Most ____________ are single-celled and microscopic © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Domain Bacteria (b) Domain Archaea (c) Domain Eukarya 2 m 2 m
Figure 1.15 (a) Domain Bacteria (b) Domain Archaea 2 m 2 m (c) Domain Eukarya Kingdom Animalia 100 m Figure 1.15 The three domains of life. Kingdom Plantae Protists Kingdom Fungi

Domain __________ includes all eukaryotic organisms
Domain Eukarya includes three multicellular kingdoms __________, which produce their own food by photosynthesis __________, which absorb nutrients __________, which ingest their food © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(c) Domain Eukarya Kingdom Animalia 100 m Kingdom Plantae Protists
Figure 1.15c (c) Domain Eukarya Kingdom Animalia 100 m Kingdom Plantae Protists Figure 1.15 The three domains of life. Kingdom Fungi

Unity in the Diversity of Life
A striking ______ underlies the diversity of life; for example _________ is the universal genetic language common to all organisms Unity is evident in many features of ________ _____________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

15 m 5 m 0.1 m Cilia of Paramecium Cilia of windpipe cells
Figure 1.16 15 m 5 m Cilia of Paramecium Cilia of windpipe cells Figure 1.16 An example of unity underlying the diversity of life: the architecture of cilia in eukaryotes. 0.1 m Cross section of a cilium, as viewed with an electron microscope

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection
_________ and other evidence document the evolution of life on Earth over billions of years © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.17 Figure 1.17 Digging into the past.

Darwin made two main points
______________ published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859 Darwin made two main points Species showed evidence of “_______________ _______________” from common ancestors _______________ is the mechanism behind “descent with modification” Darwin’s theory explained the duality of unity and diversity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.19 Figure 1.19 Unity and diversity in the orchid family.

Darwin observed that Individuals in a population ________ in their traits, many of which are _______________ ________ offspring are produced than survive, and competition is inevitable Species generally suit their ________________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Darwin inferred that Individuals that are best suited to their environment are more likely to ____________ and ___________________ Over time, more individuals in a _____________ will have the advantageous traits Evolution occurs as the __________________ ____________________of individuals © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Darwin called this process __________________
In other words, the environment “_______” for the propagation of beneficial traits Darwin called this process __________________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Population with varied inherited traits 2
Figure 1.20 1 Population with varied inherited traits 2 Elimination of individuals with certain traits 3 Reproduction of survivors 4 Increasing frequency of traits that enhance survival and reproductive success Figure 1.20 Natural selection.

Natural selection results in the ___________ of organisms to their environment
For example, ___________ are an example of adaptation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Tree of Life “Unity in diversity” arises from “______________ ______________________” For example, the forelimb of the bat, human, and horse and the whale flipper all share a common skeletal architecture ____________ provide additional evidence of anatomical unity from descent with modification © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Darwin proposed that natural selection could cause an ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendent species For example, the finch species of the Galápagos Islands are descended from a common ancestor Evolutionary relationships are often illustrated with treelike diagrams that show ancestors and their descendants © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cactus-flower- eaters
Figure 1.22 Green warbler finch Certhidea olivacea Warbler finches Insect-eaters COMMON ANCESTOR Gray warbler finch Certhidea fusca Sharp-beaked ground finch Geospiza difficilis Seed-eater Vegetarian finch Platyspiza crassirostris Bud-eater Mangrove finch Cactospiza heliobates Woodpecker finch Cactospiza pallida Tree finches Insect-eaters Medium tree finch Camarhynchus pauper Large tree finch Camarhynchus psittacula Small tree finch Camarhynchus parvulus Figure 1.22 Descent with modification: adaptive radiation of finches on the Galápagos Islands. Large cactus ground finch Geospiza conirostris Cactus-flower- eaters Cactus ground finch Geospiza scandens Ground finches Seed-eaters Small ground finch Geospiza fuliginosa Medium ground finch Geospiza fortis Large ground finch Geospiza magnirostris

Concept 1.3: In studying nature, scientists make observations and then form and test hypotheses
The word __________ is derived from Latin and means “to know” ______________ is the search for information and explanation The scientific process includes making _______________, forming logical___________, and ___________ them © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Types of Data ___________ are recorded observations or items of information; these fall into two categories _______________ data, or descriptions rather than measurements For example, Jane Goodall’s observations of chimpanzee behavior ________________data, or recorded measurements, which are sometimes organized into tables and graphs © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.23 Figure 1.23 Jane Goodall collecting qualitative data on chimpanzee behavior.

Inductive Reasoning Specific observations to general conclusion
________________ draws conclusions through the logical process of induction Repeating specific observations can lead to important generalizations For example, “the sun always rises in the east” Specific observations to general conclusion © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Forming and Testing Hypotheses
Observations and inductive reasoning can lead us to ask questions and propose hypothetical explanations called_________________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Role of Hypotheses in Inquiry
A __________________ is a tentative answer to a well-framed question A scientific hypothesis leads to ______________ that can be tested by observation or experimentation © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Both these hypotheses are __________________
For example, Observation: Your flashlight doesn’t work Question: Why doesn’t your flashlight work? Hypothesis 1: The batteries are dead Hypothesis 2: The bulb is burnt out Both these hypotheses are __________________ © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.24 A campground example of hypothesis-based inquiry.
Observations Question Hypothesis #1: Dead batteries Hypothesis #2: Burnt-out bulb Prediction: Replacing batteries will fix problem Prediction: Replacing bulb will fix problem Figure 1.24 A campground example of hypothesis-based inquiry. Test of prediction Test of prediction Test falsifies hypothesis Test does not falsify hypothesis

Deductive Reasoning and Hypothesis Testing
__________________ uses general premises to make specific predictions For example, if organisms are made of cells (premise 1), and humans are organisms (premise 2), then humans are composed of cells (deductive prediction) General to specific © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Failure to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis
____________________ often makes use of two or more alternative hypotheses Failure to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis For example, you replace your flashlight bulb, and it now works; this supports the hypothesis that your bulb was burnt out, but does not prove it (perhaps the first bulb was inserted incorrectly) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Questions That Can and Cannot Be Addressed by Science
A hypothesis must be _________ and ________ For example, a hypothesis that ghosts fooled with the flashlight cannot be tested Supernatural and religious explanations are outside the bounds of science © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Flexibility of the Scientific Method
The _______________ is an idealized process of inquiry Hypothesis-based science is based on the “textbook” scientific method but rarely follows all the ordered steps © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Mimicry in Snake Populations
Many poisonous species are brightly colored, which warns potential predators ___________ are harmless species that closely resemble poisonous species Henry Bates hypothesized that this mimicry evolved in harmless species as an evolutionary adaptation that reduces their chances of being eaten © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

This hypothesis was tested with the venomous eastern coral snake and its mimic the nonvenomous scarlet kingsnake Both species live in the Carolinas, but the kingsnake is also found in regions without venomous coral snakes If predators inherit an avoidance of the coral snake’s coloration, then the colorful kingsnake will be attacked less often in the regions where coral snakes are present © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

North Carolina South Carolina
Figure 1.25 Scarlet kingsnake (nonvenomous) Key Range of scarlet kingsnake only Overlapping ranges of scarlet kingsnake and eastern coral snake North Carolina South Carolina Eastern coral snake (venomous) Figure 1.25 The geographic ranges of a venomous snake and its mimic. Scarlet kingsnake (nonvenomous)

Field Experiments with Artificial Snakes
To test this mimicry hypothesis, researchers made hundreds of artificial snakes: An __________________ resembling kingsnakes A _____________ resembling plain brown snakes Equal numbers of both types were placed at field sites, including areas without poisonous coral snakes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Artificial kingsnake
Figure 1.26 (a) Artificial kingsnake Figure 1.26 Artificial snakes used in field experiments to test the mimicry hypothesis. (b) Brown artificial snake that has been attacked

After four weeks, the scientists retrieved the artificial snakes and counted bite or claw marks
The data fit the predictions of the mimicry hypothesis: the ringed snakes were attacked less frequently in the geographic region where coral snakes were found © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Percent of total attacks on artificial snakes
Figure 1.27 RESULTS 100 Artificial kingsnakes 83% 84% Brown artificial snakes 80 60 Percent of total attacks on artificial snakes 40 Figure 1.27 Inquiry: Does the presence of venomous coral snakes affect predation rates on their mimics, kingsnakes? 20 17% 16% Coral snakes absent Coral snakes present

Experimental Controls and Repeatability
A ____________________compares an experimental group (the artificial kingsnakes) with a control group (the artificial brown snakes) Ideally, only the ________________(the effect of coloration on the behavior of predators) differs between the control and experimental groups A controlled experiment means that _________ _____________ are used to cancel the effects of unwanted variables A controlled experiment does not mean that all unwanted variables are kept constant © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Theories in Science In the context of science, a theory is
Broader in scope than a hypothesis General, and can lead to new testable hypotheses Supported by a large body of evidence in comparison to a hypothesis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Concept 1.4: Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints
Most scientists work in _____________, which often include graduate and undergraduate students Good _________________ is important in order to share results through seminars, publications, and websites © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Building on the Work of Others
Scientists check each others’ claims by performing similar experiments It is not unusual for different scientists to work on the same research question Scientists cooperate by sharing data about _____ __________________(e.g., the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Science, Technology, and Society
The goal of science is to understand __________ ______________ The goal of _____________ is to apply scientific knowledge for some specific purpose Science and technology are _________________ Biology is marked by “_____________,” while technology is marked by “_______________” © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The combination of science and technology has dramatic effects on society
For example, the discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick allowed for advances in DNA technology such as testing for hereditary diseases ___________ issues can arise from new technology, but have as much to do with politics, economics, and cultural values as with science and technology © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Value of Diverse Viewpoints in Science
Many important inventions have occurred where different cultures and ideas mix For example, the printing press relied on innovations from China (paper and ink) and Europe (mass production in mills) Science benefits from diverse views from different racial and ethnic groups, and from both women and men © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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